57. See, e.g., The Federalist No. 70 (Alexander Hamilton) (citing “[d]ecision, activity, secrecy, and dispatch” as advantages of a unitary executive that promote “energy” in that position). For more on the importance of constitutional commitments, the works of Stephen Holmes are instructive. E.g., Stephen Holmes, Passions and Constraint: On the Theory of Liberal Democracy (1995); Stephen Holmes, “In Case of Emergency: Misunderstanding Tradeoffs in the War on Terror,” Calif. L. Rev. 97 (2009): 301.

  58. Holmes, “In Case of Emergency,” supra note 57, at 301–2. See generally Atul Gawande, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right (2009).

  59. Carl Matthies, Vera Institute of Justice, Advancing the Quality of Cost-Benefit Analysis for Justice Programs (2014), 1, www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/advancing-the-quality-of-cba.pdf.

  60. See, e.g., Holmes, “In Case of Emergency,” supra note 57.

  61. E.g., Rachel Blade, “Criminal Justice Reform Gains Bipartisan Momentum,” Politico, Jul. 15, 2015, 5:15 a.m., www.politico.com/story/2015/07/criminal-justice-reform-gains-bipartisan-momentum-120125.html.

  1. POLICING IN SECRET

    1. The Day We Fight Back, https://thedaywefightback.org; About Us: Restore the Fourth Chicago, http://rt4chicago.com/about.html; March & Dinner in Conjunction with “The Day We Fight Back,” www.facebook.com/events/1438369666398805.

    2. Interview by Barry Friedman with Freddy Martinez, Mar. 25, 2015 (hereinafter Martinez Interview); Sam Adler-Bell, “Beware the ‘Stingray,’” U.S. News & World Rep., Mar. 13, 2015, 10:45 a.m., www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2015/03/13/stingray-lets-police-spy-on-cellphones-and-they-want-to-keep-it-secret.

    3. Adler-Bell, “Beware the Stingray,” supra note 2; Kim Zetter, “Turns Out Police Stingray Spy Tools Can Indeed Record Calls,” Wired, Oct. 28, 2015, www.wired.com/2015/10/stingray-government-spy-tools-can-record-calls-new-documents-confirm.

    4. Chuck Sudo, “Is the Chicago Police Department Monitoring Occupy Chicago’s Cell Phone Conversations?,” Chicagoist, Nov. 7, 2011, 9:15 a.m., http://chicagoist.com/2011/11/07/is_the_chicago_police_department_mo.php; John Kelly, “Cellphone Data Spying: It’s Not Just the NSA,” USA Today, May 20, 2014, 10:54 a.m., www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/12/08/cellphone-data-spying-nsa-police/3902809 (Miami police); Fruzsina Eördögh, “Evidence of ‘Stingray’ Phone Surveillance by Police Mounts in Chicago,” Christian Sci. Monitor, Dec. 22, 2014, www.csmonitor.com/World/Passcode/2014/1222/Evidence-of-stingray-phone-surveillance-by-police-mounts-in-Chicago; Martinez Interview, supra note 2.

    5. Martinez Interview, supra note 2; Complaint at 4, Ex. 7, Martinez v. Chicago Police Dep’t. (Martinez I), No. 2014CH09565 (Ill Cir. Ct. filed June 6, 2014).

    6. Interview by Barry Friedman with Matthew Topic, Mar. 13, 2015 (hereinafter Topic Interview); John Dodge, “After Denials, Chicago Police Department Admits Purchase of Cell-Phone Spying Devices,” CBS Chicago, Oct. 1, 2014, 10:52 a.m., http://chicago.cbslocal.com/2014/10/01/chicago-police-department-admits-purchase-of-cell-phone-spying-devices.

    7. Martinez filed four further FOIA requests with CPD seeking information on Stingrays. See Def.’s Notice of Supplemental Production in Response to FOIA Request at 2, Martinez I; Complaint at 3–4, Ex. E–F, Martinez v. Chicago Police Dep’t. (Martinez II), No. 2014CH15338 (Ill. Cir. Ct. filed Sept. 23, 2014).

    8. Invoice from Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP to City of Chicago (on file with author); Def.’s Motion to Dismiss at 4, 8, 14, Martinez II (Ill. Cir. Ct. filed Dec. 10, 2014); letter from Elizabeth V. Lopez, Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, to Freddy Martinez, Nov. 13, 2014 (on file with author); letter from Jeffery D. Perconte, Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, to Freddy Martinez, Feb. 10, 2015 (on file with author); letter from Jeffery D. Perconte, Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, to Freddy Martinez, Feb. 5, 2015 (on file with author); letter from Jeffery D. Perconte, Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, to Freddy Martinez, Jan. 22, 2015 (on file with author).

    9. Skolnick v. Altheimer & Gray, 730 N.E.2d 4, 16 (Ill. 2000) (unsealed court records); Ryan Gallagher, “Meet the Machines That Steal Your Phone’s Data,” Ars Technica, Sep. 25, 2013, 1:00 p.m., http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/09/meet-the-machines-that-steal-your-phones-data/ (public patent documents).

  10. Cyrus Farivar, “To Explain Stingrays, Local Cops Cribbed Letter Pre-Written by FBI,” Ars Technica, Mar. 24, 2015, 7:00 a.m., http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/03/to-explain-stingrays-local-cops-cribbed-letter-likely-pre-written-by-feds/; Affidavit of Bradley S. Morrison, Def.’s Motion to Dismiss at Ex. 5, Martinez II (Ill. Cir. Ct. filed Dec. 10, 2014). Locales where the Morrison affidavit showed up include Tucson, Arizona; San Diego, California (where the City released the affidavit); and Virginia. See City Attorney Statement, City of San Diego, “City Attorney Releases Three Documents Related to Stingray Cell Site Simulator,” Dec. 22, 2014, www.sandiego.gov/cityattorney/pdf/news/2014/nr141222.pdf; Jack Gillum and Eileen Sullivan, “US Pushing Local Cops to Stay Mum on Surveillance,” Yahoo Finance, June 21, 2014, http://finance.yahoo.com/news/us-pushing-local-cops-stay-174613067.html; Matt Richtel, “A Police Gadget Tracks Phones? Shhh! It’s Secret,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 15, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/03/16/business/a-police-gadget-tracks-phones-shhh-its-secret.html.

  11. Harris Government Communications Systems Terms and Conditions of Sale for Domestic Wireless Equipment, Software, and Services (on file with author) (“The customer shall not disclose … any information regarding Customer’s purchase or use … to the public in any manner including but not limited to: in press releases, in court documents and/or proceedings, internet, or during other public forums or proceedings.”); Jessica Glenza and Nicky Woolf, “Stingray Spying: FBI’s Secret Deal with Police Hides Phone Dragnet from Courts,” The Guardian, Apr. 10, 2015, www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/apr/10/stingray-spying-fbi-phone-dragnet-police.

  12. Affidavit of Bradley S. Morrison, Def.’s Motion to Dismiss at Ex. 5, Martinez II (Ill. Cir. Ct. filed Dec. 10, 2014) (“jigsaw puzzle”); Farivar, “To Explain Stingrays,” supra note 10 (“circumvent”); Jessica Lussenhop, “St. Louis Police Have Used Stingray Technology for Years—They Just Won’t Talk About It,” Riverfront Times, May 20, 2015, 8:00 a.m., www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2015/05/20/st-louis-police-have-used-stingray-technology-for-years-they-just-wont-talk-about-it (quoting Hanni Fakhoury).

  13. Lussenhop, “St. Louis Police Have Used Stingray Technology for Years,” supra note 12; Jason Koebler, “The FBI Admits It Uses Fake Cell Phone Towers to Track You,” Vice, Feb. 16, 2015, http://motherboard.vice.com/read/fbi-admits-it-uses-fake-cell-phone-towers-to-track-you.

  14. Alliance to End Repression v. City of Chicago, 237 F.3d 799, 801 (7th Cir. 2001) (Posner, J.); Martinez Interview, supra note 2; Topic Interview, supra note 6.

  15. Fred Clasen-Kelly, “Secrecy Lifts in CMPD Stingray Phone Tracking,” Charlotte Observer, Feb. 15, 2015, 6:00 a.m., www.charlotteobserver.com/latest-news/article10435436.html#.VONYcy4YEsJ; Fred Clasen-Kelly, “Mecklenburg County District Attorney’s Office to Review Surveillance Cases,” Charlotte Observer, Nov. 20, 2014, www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/crime/article9234986.html.

  16. Clasen-Kelly, “Mecklenburg County, District Attorney’s Office to Review Surveillance Cases,” supra note 15; Adam Lynn, “Tacoma Police Change How They Seek Permission to Use Cellphone Tracker,” News Trib., Nov. 15, 2014, 12:00 a.m., www.thenewstribune.com/news/local/crime/article25894096.html.

  17. Cyrus Farivar, “FBI Would Rather Prosecutors Drop Cases Than Disclose Stingray Details,” Ars Technica, Apr. 7, 2015, 5:35 p.m., http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/04/fbi-would-rather-prosecutors-drop-cases-than-disclose-stingray-details/ (FBI can force prosecutors to drop cases under NDAs); Lussenhop, “St. Louis Police Have Used Stingray Technology for Years,” supra note 12 (cases actually dropped or generous plea agreements notwithstanding FBI denial); Ellen Nakashima, “Secrecy Around Police Surveillance Proves a Case’s Undoing,” Wash. Post, Feb. 22, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/secrecy-around-police-surveillance-equipment-proves-a-cases-undoing/2015/02/22/ce72308a-b7ac-11e4-aa05-1ce812b3fdd2_story.html (Tallahassee).

  18. Topic Interview, supra note 6; Justin Fenton, “Baltimore Police Used Secret Technology to Track Cellphones in Thousands of Cases,” Balt. Sun, Apr. 9, 2015, www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/baltimore-city/bs-md-ci-stingray-case-20150408-story.html (Baltimore records and contempt threat); Adler-Bell, “Beware the ‘Stingray,’” supra note 2 (decision to proceed without evidence); Justin Fenton, “Maryland Appellate Court: Warrant Required for ‘Stingray’ Phone Tracking,” Balt. Sun, Mar. 31, 2016, www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/crime/bs-md-ci-stingray-court-decision-20160331-story.html; Nakashima, “Secrecy Around Police Surveillance,” supra note 17 (quoting Judge Frank Sheffield).

  19. Glenza and Woolf, “Stingray Spying,” supra note 11 (quoting Bruce Jacob); N.Y. Civil Liberties Union v. Erie Cty. Sheriff’s Office, 15 N.Y.S.3d 713, 2015 WL 1295966, at *11 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. Mar. 17, 2015) (unreported table decision).

  20. CPD supplemented its initial response with another disclosure on December 8, 2014. Letter from Elizabeth Lopez, Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, to Freddy Martinez, Dec. 8, 2014 (on file with author) (Chicago had Stingrays as early as 2005); Martinez Interview, supra note 2; Topic Interview, supra note 6.

  21. Douglas Greenberg, “The Effectiveness of Law Enforcement in Eighteenth-Century New York,” Am. J. Legal Hist. 19 (1975): 177–78 (Schuyler); Eric H. Monkkonen, Crime, Justice, History (2012), 174 (New York Gazette (citing Arthur E. Peterson and George W. Edwards, New York as an Eighteenth Century Municipality, 2nd ed. (1967), 324)); Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860–1920 (2004), 32 (Louisiana Gazette (citing George A. Ketcham, Municipal Police Reform: A Comparative Study of Law Enforcement in Cincinnati, Chicago, New Orleans, New York, and St. Louis, 1844–1877 (1967), 48)).

  22. James F. Richardson, The New York Police: Colonial Times to 1901 (1970), 42 (“absolute police despotism”); Carol S. Steiker, “Second Thoughts About First Principles,” Harv. L. Rev. 107 (1994): 831 (1833 report) (citing David R. Johnson, Policing the Urban Underworld: The Impact of Crime on the Development of the American Police, 1800–1887 (1979), 48); Roger Roots, “Are Cops Constitutional?,” Seton Hall Const. L.J. 11 (2001): 695 & 695n57 (“bobbies”).

  23. Monkkonen, Crime, Justice, History, supra note 21, at 175; Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice (1998), 57, 63 (“in restaurants, asleep, or otherwise away from their posts”); H. Paul Jeffers, Commissioner Roosevelt: The Story of Theodore Roosevelt and the New York City Police, 1895–1897 (1994), 107 (“asleep on a butter-tub”).

  24. Allen Steinberg, The Transformation of Criminal Justice: Philadelphia 1800–1880 (2000), 152, 177.

  25. “Farewell to Williams,” N.Y. Times, May 25, 1895, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9405E6D7133DE433A25756C2A9639C94649ED7CF; “Williams, ‘Ex-Czar’ of Tenderloin, Dies,” N.Y. Times, Mar. 26, 1917, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9901E5D9143AE433A25755C2A9659C946696D6CF.

  26. “Farewell to Williams,” supra note 25 (“energetic action at popular gatherings”); The Yale Book of Quotations, ed. Fred. R. Shapiro (2006), 810 (attributing the “nightstick” quotation to Williams and noting Grover A. Whalen uttered a similar phrase decades later); “Williams, ‘Ex-Czar’ of Tenderloin, Dies,” supra note 25 (“Just ask the Mayor”). Note, however, that Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform (1977), 8, attributes a similar quote about nightsticks and the Supreme Court to Thomas Byrnes.

  27. “Williams, ‘Ex-Czar’ of Tenderloin, Dies,” supra note 25.

  28. Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 64 (quoting the Reverend Charles Henry Parkhurst); Richardson, The New York Police, supra note 22, at 234–40 (explaining the formation of the Lexow Commission and Parkhurst’s role). See generally Charles H. Parkhurst, Our Fight with Tammany (1895).

  29. Report of the Special Committee Appointed to Investigate the Police Department of the City of New York, S. 118–25 (N.Y., 1895), 25, 28, 34–35, 40, 44–45.

  30. Id. at 15 (emphasis added).

  31. Id. at 15–20, 29, 32–51.

  32. On the politicization of the police, see Edward L. Ayers, Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th Century American South (1984), 88; Egon Bittner, Aspects of Police Work (1990), 117; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, supra note 21, at 42–44; Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 25–28; Steiker, “Second Thoughts About First Principles,” supra note 22, at 834–35. For background on Vollmer, see Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 70–73; O. W. Wilson, “August Vollmer,” J. Crim. L. & Criminology 44 (1953): 94. The 1917 report is August Vollmer and Albert Schneider, “The School for Police as Planned at Berkley,” J. Crim L. & Criminology 7 (1917): 877.

  33. Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 39, 70–75.

  34. Id. at 70–75, 143 (“scientific”); Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 172–73 (“efficient”).

  35. Jerome H. Skolnick and James H. Fyfe, Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force (1993), 45–46 (“fixed” charges, “shakedown arrests”); National Comm’n on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement (1931), 38–52 (“third degree,” “torture”).

  36. Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278, 281, 287 (1936). On the Isaac Woodard story, see “Aiken Is Angered at Welles Charge,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 9, 1946; “Federal Help Sought for Blinded Veteran,” N.Y. Times, July 25, 1946.

  37. These developments are described in Skolnick and Fyfe, Above the Law, supra note 35, at 175; Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at ix, 55–56.

  38. Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 60 (social services); Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 139, 149–60 (going after the bad guys).

  39. Bittner, Aspects of Police Work, supra note 32, at 6–7 (the shiny squad car, with its two-way radio); Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 165–67 (call response times and crime rates).

  40. Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 195–96 (“long, hot summers”); The Kerner Report: The 1968 Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (1968; repr. 1988), 206, 299.

  41. Skolnick and Fyfe, Above the Law, supra note 35, at 82–83, (quoting Daniel Bell, “Columbia and the New Left,” The Public Interest, Fall 1968, at 81).

  42. Id. at 75–76, 81 (quoting Daniel Walker, Rights in Conflict: The Violent Confrontation of Demonstrators and Police in the Parks and Streets of Chicago During the Week of the Democratic National Convention of 1968: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (1968), xv); see also Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 172–74 (discussing the events of the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago).

  43. Barry Friedman, The Will of the People: How Public Opinion Has Influenced the Supreme Court and Shaped the Meaning of the Constitution (2009), 276.

  44. Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, Foreword to The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: A Report by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967).

  45. The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, supra note 44, at 99–100, 102.

  46. Id. at 100–101.

  47. Lee P. Brown, “Community Policing: A Practical Guide for Police Officials,” Perspectives on Policing, Sept. 1989, at 5, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/118001.pdf.

  48. William J. Clinton, “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” Jan. 25, 1994, in Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 30 (1994): 155–56; COPS Office: Mission History, www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=2754; Michael D. Reisig, “Community and Problem-Oriented Policing,” Crime & Just. 39 (2010): 19–20 (disbursements); Matthew J. Hickman and Brian A. Reaves, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report: Community Policing in Local Police Departments, 1997 and 1999 (2001), 1–2. See generally Tracey L. Meares, “Praying for Community Policing,” Calif. L. Rev. 90 (2002): 1596–97.

  49. Robert M. Morgenthau, “Does Community Policing Work? Beware of Its Limits,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 30, 1990.

  50. Id.

  51. John Crank and Robert Langworthy, “Fragmented Centralization and the Organization of the Police,” Policing & Soc’y 6 (1996): 213 (“hodge-podge”); Jerome H. Skolnick and David H. Bayley, “Theme and Variation in Community Policing,” Crime & Just. 10 (1988): 4 (“buzzword”); Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces (2013), 220 (citing Peter B. Kraska and Victor E. Kappeler, “Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units,” Soc. Probs. 44 [1997]: 13) (SWAT).