NASA News Release J98-40, “Lawrence Moves to Rotational Assignment at National Reconnaissance Office,” August 25, 1998.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18

  “2019 Distinguished Graduate Awards: Captain Wendy B. Lawrence ’81, USN (Ret.),” YouTube, May 6, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZabqdx_Iy8.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19

  “LGBTQI+ Pride Month—Wendy Lawrence, U.S. Navy Officer and NASA Astronaut,” Transportation History, June 30, 2023, https://transportationhistory.org/2023/06/30/lgbtqi-pride-month-wendy-lawrence-u-s-navy-officer-and-nasa-astronaut/; Wendy Lawrence, correspondence with author, May 5, 2024.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20

  Mobley, “Ad Astra with Astronaut Wendy Lawrence.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21

  Ibid.; “LGBTQI+ Pride Month.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22

  Mary Ellen Weber, correspondence with author, June 10, 2024.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24

  “Dean’s Lecture Series: Mary Ellen Weber,” YouTube, September 24, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ppwpOoIz7pI.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25

  Mary Ellen Weber, interviews with author, June 26, 2023, and July 10, 2024.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26

  NASA News Release 93-101, “Biennial Astronaut Recruiting Begins,” June 1, 1993.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27

  NASA News Release 94-205, “1995 Astronaut Candidates Selected,” December 8, 1994.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28

  Jean-Pierre Harrison, The Edge of Time: The Authoritative Biography of Kalpana Chawla (Los Gatos, CA: Harrison Publishing, 2011). This is the reference for personal information in Chawla’s profile unless otherwise noted.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 50–57.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30

  Darryl Fears, “Sky-High Ambition and a Love of Flight,” Washington Post, February 6, 2003.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31

  Kay Hire, correspondence with author, July 15 and 20, 2024.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 32

  Kay Hire, interview with author, August 13, 2023; Cavallaro, To the Stars, 461–67.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33

  Captain Kathryn P. Hire, United States Navy Biography, 2016, provided to the author by Hire.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34

  Bill the Goat, “USNA Hero Highlight: Kathryn P. Hire,” October 2021, https://go.navyonline.com/blog/usna-hero-highlight-kathryn-p.-hire.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 35

  NASA News Release J19-004, “Astronaut Kathryn (Kay) Hire Retires from NASA,” March 21, 2019.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 36

  Hire, interview with author.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 37

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 38

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 313–19.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 39

  Elizabeth Howell, “Retired NASA Astronaut Janet Kavandi Brings Inclusion to Sierra Space Missions,” Space.com, March 19, 2023, https://www.space.com/womens-history-month-astronaut-janet-kavandi-sierra-space; “Paths to the New Age of Spaceflight with Janet Kavandi (Episode 086, Kathy Sullivan Explores),” Kathy Sullivan, November 24, 2022, https://www.kathysullivanexplores.com/podcast/paths-to-the-new-age-of-spaceflight-with-janet-kavandi.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 40

  Jillian Kramer, “An Astronaut Who Built Paths to Space for Other Women,” New York Times, October 2, 2019.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 41

  “Pamela Melroy—Her STEM Story,” undated, https://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/visit/her-story-online/pamela-melroy.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 42

  Jennifer Levasseur, “In Her Own Orbit,” March 22, 2022, https://airandspace.si.edu/air-and-space-quarterly/spring-2022/her-own-orbit.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 43

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 394–402.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 44

  Pamela Melroy, conversations with author over time, 2003–2019.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 45

  Torsten Kriening, “Space Café Podcast Episode 016 Featuring Pamela Melroy Is Now Available,” SpaceWatch.Global, November 24, 2020, https://spacewatch.global/2020/11/space-cafe-podcast-episode-016-featuring-pamela-melroy-is-now-available/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 46

  https://www.nasa.gov/podcasts/small-steps-giant-leaps/small-steps-giant-leaps-episode-145-pam-melroy-behind-the-strategy/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 47

  Juliet Homes, “From Star Trek Posters to NASA: The Journey of Pamela Melroy ’83,” Wellesley, May 26, 2023, https://www.wellesley.edu/news/from-star-trek-posters-to-nasa-the-journey-of-pamela-melroy-83.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 48

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 389–94.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 49

  Susan Still Kilrain, interview with author, March 1, 2023.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 50

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 51

  N2K Networks, “Forging Your Journey with NASA Astronaut Susan Kilrain,” Deep Space, https://space.n2k.com/podcasts/t-minus/ds55

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 52

  Stephen Luntz, “Astronaut Susan Kilrain Tells Her Story Of Piloting Space Shuttle In Controversial Place,” IFLScience, March 8, 2023, https://www.iflscience.com/astronaut-susan-kilrain-tells-her-story-of-piloting-space-shuttle-in-controversial-place-67867.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 53

  Maria Elizabeth Kallukaren, “ ‘You Can Be Girlie, and Still Do STEM,’ Says Former Astronaut,” Gulf News, November 11, 2022, https://gulfnews.com/friday/art-people/you-can-be-girlie-and-still-do-stem-says-former-astronaut-1.91540039.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 54

  Kilrain interview.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 55

  N2K Networks, Forging Your Journey.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 56

  NASA News Release 95-045, “Biennial Astronaut Selection Process Begins,” June 15, 1995; NASA News Release 96-84, “NASA Selects Astronaut Class of 1996,” May 1, 1996.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 57

  Several astronauts commented on this situation in interviews with the author in 2023.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 58

  “Yvonne Cagle, UW Medical School Grad Turns Astronaut,” Columns, The University of Washington Alumni Magazine, September 1996, www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/sept96/cagle.html; Betty Kaplan Gubert, Miriam Sawyer, and Caroline M. Fannin, Distinguished African Americans in Aviation and Space Science (Westport, CT: Oryx Press, 2002), 63–65.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 59

  “GSS Exclusive: ‘Hidden Figure’ Katherine Johnson Speaks to NASA’s Dr. Yvonne Cagle,” Fordham GSS, February 17, 2017, https://gss.news.fordham.edu/events/gss-exclusive-hidden-figure-katherine-johnson-speaks-nasas-dr-yvonne-cagle/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 60

  Kevin Hymel, “From Flight Surgeon to Astronaut: Air Force Colonel (Dr.) Yvonne Cagle,” February 22, 2018, https://www.airforcemedicine.af.mil/DesktopModules/ArticleCS/Print.aspx?PortalId=1&ModuleId=5872&Article=1448142; Yvonne Cagle, “Poetry of Space on Earth,” TED Talk, November 27, 2018, https://www.ted.com/talks/yvonne_cagle_poetry_of_space_on_earth.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 61

  “Mission: ‘Space for All’ Yvonne Cagle,” MIT News, May 21, 2015, https://news.mit.edu/2015/mission-space-for-all-yvonne-cagle-0521.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 62

  “HSF—STS-107 Crew Interviews—Laurel Clark,” June 10, 2002, https://web.archive.org/web/20041113141500/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/archives/sts-107/crew/intclark.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 63

  “STS 107 Shuttle Press Kit: Providing 24/7 Space Science Research,” December 16, 2002, https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20030011376.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 64

  Chris Kidler, “Columbia’s Astronauts Find Small Miracles of Life and Light,” Space.com, January 29, 2013, https://www.space.com/19468-shuttle-columbia-final-flight-sts107-small-miracles.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 65

  “HSF—STS-107 Crew Interviews—Laurel Clark.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 66

  Kathy Sawyer, “Shuttle Astronaut’s Videotape Recovered: Recording Ends 4 Minutes Before Data Suggest Reentry Trouble Began,” Washington Post, February 26, 2003; Associated Press, “Columbia Crew Cheerful on Tape before Disaster, Tucson Citizen, March 1, 2003.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 67

  Laurel Clark, “Laurel Clark Letter Home,” January 31, 2003, https://web.archive.org/web/20070313102022/http://racine.wi.net/clarkletter.html. “Laurel Clark Obituary,” Text, Legacy.com, February 1, 2003, https://www.legacy.com/link.asp?i=ls000000764391; Timothy Dwyer, “Celebrating an Explorer’s Life: Astronaut’s Passion Recalled at Funeral,” Washington Post, March 11, 2003; Alan Cooperman, “Pushing Past the Barriers With a Smile: Voyage Into Space Was the Fruit of Navy Commander’s Labors and Dreams,” Washington Post, February 7, 2003.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 68

  Patrick Paolantonio, “Shuttle Columbia Tragedy 20 Years Later, Husband Talks Loss and Discovery,” WISN, February 3, 2023, https://www.wisn.com/article/shuttle-columbia-tragedy-20-years-later-husband-talks-loss-and-discovery/42750278; Ashley Strickland, “Families of the Columbia Crew Members Keep Their Memories Alive,” CNN, April 12, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/12/world/nasa-columbia-shuttle-crew-families-scn/index.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 69

  Joan Higginbotham, “An Astronaut’s Inspiring and Winding Road to Space,” TED Talk, October 2019, https://www.ted.com/talks/joan_higginbotham_an_astronaut_s_inspiring_and_winding_road_to_space.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 70

  Adam Lowenstein, “Alumna Joan Higginbotham Builds Successful, Varied Post-NASA Career,” Florida Tech News, May 20, 2024, https://news.fit.edu/alumni/alumna-joan-higginbotham-builds-successful-varied-post-nasa-career/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 71

  Higginbotham, “An Astronaut’s Road.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 72

  Todd Halvorson, “From KSC Worker to Astronaut: Higginbotham,” Florida Today, October 17, 2007; Stephen Withers, “iTWire—Shuttle Astronaut Quits,” November 22, 2007, https://itwire.com/science-news/space/shuttle-astronaut-quits.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 73

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 339–45.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 74

  Higginbotham, “An Astronaut’s Road.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 75

  Gordon J. Bernhardt, “Sandra H. Magnus: A Space of One’s Own,” Profiles in Success, March 2014, https://www.profilesinsuccess.com/profile/sandra-magnus; NASA, “Sandra Magnus ISS Expedition 18 Preflight Interview,” September 24, 2008, nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition18/magnus_interview.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 76

  Sandra Magnus, interview with author, February 22, 2023.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 77

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 78

  Sandra Magnus, “Sandra Magnus’ Expedition 18 Journal,” 2009; Sandra Magnus, “ISS 18: Sandy Magnus on Cooking in Space,” http://www.collectspace.com/ubb/Forum30/HTML/000767.html; Tariq Malik, “Astronaut Chef Redefines Cooking on High,” Space.com, March 27, 2009, https://www.space.com/6501-astronaut-chef-redefines-cooking-high.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 79

  NASA, “Sandra Magnus STS-135 Preflight Interview,” 2011.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 80

  USNA, “USNA Notable Graduates, Lisa Nowak, NASA Astronaut,” 2017, https://www.usna.edu/Notables/astronauts/1985nowak.php.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 81

  “Preflight Interview: Lisa Nowak, STS-121,” August 11, 2005, https://web.archive.org/web/20210610022904/https://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/preparingtravel/sts121_interview_nowak.html Wayback Machine.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 82

  Lisa Nowak, interview with author, July 2, 2023.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 83

  Anna Sale and Jonathan Clark, “An Astronaut’s Husband, Left Behind,” Slate Magazine, https://slate.com/transcripts/MWJXMFZPUnE2aVVaTG8zVnJacVlsNXhzQlVJb0l5QlYzSUFiVk9rSmV2OD0=.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 84

  Heide Stefanyshyn-Piper, interview with author, April 2, 2023; milkywaykiwi, “Inspiring Tomorrow’s Innovators: The Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper Story,” https://milky-way.kiwi/space-news/heidemarie-stefanyshyn-piper/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 85

  Stefanyshyn-Piper interview.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 86

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 87

  Ann Parson, “Scientist at Work: Peggy Whitson Testing Limits, 220 Miles above Earth,” New York Times, September 5, 2006.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 88

  Amy Held, “ ‘American Space Ninja’ Back on Earth after Record-Breaking Flight,” NPR, September 3, 2017, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/03/548295156/-american-space-ninja-peggy-whitson-back-on-earth-after-record-breaking-flight.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 89

  Parson, “Scientist at Work”; Cavallaro, To the Stars, 402–10.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 90

  Ibid.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 91

  Bianca Brosh, “America’s Most Experienced Astronaut Was Rejected 4 Times before Joining NASA,” MSNBC, August 7, 2023, https://www.msnbc.com/know-your-value/career-growth/america-s-most-experienced-astronaut-was-rejected-4-times-joining-n1306953.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 92

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 409.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 93

  NASA News Release 18-054, “Record-Setting NASA Astronaut Peggy Whitson Retires,” June 15, 2008, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/record-setting-nasa-astronaut-peggy-whitson-retires/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 94

  Parson, “Scientist at Work.”

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 95

  Preflight Interview: Stephanie Wilson, STS-121 (2005), August 11, 2005, nasa.gov/vision/space/preparingtravel/sts121_interview_wilson.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 96

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 333–39.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 97

  Ibid.; NASA, “Stephanie Wilson: Becoming an Astronaut Kicking and Swimming,” November 20, 2006, nasa.gov/astronauts/s_wilson_profile.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 98

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 333–39.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 99

  NASA News Release 20-128, “NASA Names Artemis Team of Astronauts Eligible for Early Moon Missions,” December 9, 2020, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-names-artemis-team-of-astronauts-eligible-for-early-moon-missions/; “The Artemis II Astronauts,” podcast, April 7, 2023, https://www.nasa.gov/podcasts/houston-we-have-a-podcast/the-artemis-ii-astronauts/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 100

  NASA News Release 21-035, “Acting NASA Administrator Statement on Agency FY 2022 Discretionary Request,” April 9, 2021, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/acting-nasa-administrator-statement-on-agency-fy-2022-discretionary-request/.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 101

  Cavallaro, To the Stars, 336–37.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 102

  Robert Stanton, “Astronaut Waits for Chance to Blast Off—Stephanie Wilson,” Houston Chronicle, September 5, 2002.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 103

  NASA News Release 97-97, “Biennial Astronaut Selection Process Begins,” May 14, 1997.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 104

  “Tracy Caldwell-Dyson—Personal Essay,” undated, https://www.nasa.gov/people/tracy-caldwell-dyson/; Preflight Interview, Tracy Caldwell Dyson, ISS Expedition 23, March 23, 2010, https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition23/dyson_interview.html.

  BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 105