bone-ache i.e. syphilis, which causes the bones to decay

  rivelled shriveled

  fee-simple permanence (legal term for absolute possession of land or property)

  tetter scaly skin eruptions

  SCENE-BY-SCENE ANALYSIS

  PROLOGUE

  The Prologue establishes the Trojan wars as the setting and conflict as the play’s central theme. The Greeks are camped outside of Troy, fighting for the return of Helen, wife of Menelaus, who was abducted by “wanton Paris.” This lengthy and bloody conflict has its basis in personal relationships, highlighting the tensions between the concerns of the individual and the state and between duty and desire. In a moment of meta-theater, the Prologue informs the “fair beholders” of the play that it begins “in the middle” of the war for dramatic purposes, drawing our attention to the themes of time and performance.

  ACT 1 SCENE 1

  Lines 1–84: Inside Troy, Troilus laments that he has no will to fight because of the “cruel battle” “within” his heart over Cressida, again emphasizing the tensions between individual and state, but also the close relationship between love and conflict. Pandarus argues that Troilus must be patient, adding that he has had “small thanks” for his attempts to bring the two together. His overtly sexual language provides a contrast to Troilus’ more traditionally poeticized declarations of love. Pandarus declares that he will advise Cressida to join her father, who has defected to the Greeks, and, despite Troilus’ protests, he leaves.

  Lines 85–114: As a call to battle sounds, Troilus laments that the only way he can woo Cressida is through Pandarus, who is “tetchy,” and that Cressida herself is “stubborn, chaste” and “against all suit.” He is interrupted by Aeneas, who asks why he is not fighting, and they leave to join the battle.

  ACT 1 SCENE 2

  Cressida questions Alexander about recent events. We learn that Hector is angry and shamed, having been “struck down” in battle by a Greek warrior, Ajax, raising the themes of honor and heroism. Alexander amuses Cressida with his description of Ajax, whose heroic qualities, such as being “valiant as the lion,” are undermined by his lack of intelligence and wit: he is also as “slow as the elephant.” Pandarus arrives and immediately begins to talk of Troilus, comparing him to Hector and saying that he is “the better man.” Cressida’s responses reveal her quick wit and strength of character. As they banter, a retreat is sounded, and Pandarus suggests that they watch the warriors return. Pandarus identifies each man for Cressida, commenting on their virtues and comparing each one unfavorably to Troilus. The effect is undermined by Cressida, whose clever, noncommittal responses foil Pandarus’ attempts to praise Troilus. Her responses also show her awareness of her own sexual worth and vulnerability. A messenger arrives, calling Pandarus to Troilus. Alone, Cressida comments that her uncle is no more than a pimp, before revealing that she is, in fact, attracted to Troilus. She explains that she is “hold[ing] … off” because she is enjoying his pursuit of her, observing that “Men prize the thing ungained more than it is,” establishing the idea of a woman’s value/worth.

  ACT 1 SCENE 3

  Lines 1–215: The focus shifts from personal to military/political matters. In the Greek camp, Agamemnon argues that although the Greeks have made little progress in the wars (Troy has held out against their siege for seven years), such conflicts are “But the protractive trials of great Jove” that will reveal their true strengths. Ulysses argues that the problem lies in the lack of leadership in the Greek camp. He demonstrates his cunning and political abilities as he makes his argument, suggesting that all systems and hierarchies need order, implemented by their leaders. He compares a badly led army to an infected human body in “an envious fever,” one of many images of disease and sickness throughout. Agamemnon asks Ulysses for the “remedy.” Ulysses lays much of the blame with Achilles, who “Grows dainty of his worth” (he has become too full of himself, reinforcing Cressida’s attribution of worth or value to people at the end of the previous scene). Ulysses suggests that Achilles is neglecting his military duties to lie “upon a lazy bed” with his lover, Patroclus. He describes how Patroclus amuses Achilles by impersonating the other princes “like a strutting player,” emphasizing the theme of performance. They are interrupted by Aeneas with a message from Hector.

  Lines 216–314: With great ceremony, Aeneas announces that Hector challenges any “Grecian that is true in love” to single combat. Agamemnon agrees that a challenger shall be found, and offers Aeneas their hospitality.

  Lines 315–398: Ulysses tells Nestor of his plan. He argues that the challenge “Relates in purpose only to Achilles.” Nestor points out that whoever meets with Hector represents Greece; he will be “a man distilled / Out of [their] virtues” and that their reputation is dependent on the outcome of the fight. Ulysses argues that they should not let Achilles meet Hector: if he wins they will have to suffer his “pride and salt scorn,” and if he loses then the Trojans will have witnessed the defeat of their “best man.” He suggests instead a rigged “lottery,” which “blockish” Ajax wins, with the leaders publicly agreeing that he is “the worthier man.” If Ajax defeats Hector, they can claim to have backed the right man, and if he loses, they can say that they have better men than him. Either way, Achilles will be annoyed at having his “plumes” plucked and given to Ajax. Nestor says that he will put the plan to Agamemnon.

  ACT 2 SCENE 1

  Ajax calls Thersites, who ignores him and continues to criticize Agamemnon in typically scurrilous language. When he does arrive, Thersites insults Ajax, calling him a “fool” and “sodden-witted,” revealing his own unpleasant character and emphasizing Ulysses’ argument about the lack of order in the Greek camp. Ajax questions Thersites about the recent proclamation, but Thersites continues to insult him. Ajax is beating Thersites when Achilles and Patroclus arrive. Thersites continues to bait Ajax, who beats him again. Achilles also argues with Thersites, reinforcing the sense of disorder and ill-discipline. Thersites leaves, and Achilles informs Ajax of Hector’s challenge, claiming that if it was not being put to a lottery, the challenger would be himself. Ajax is scornful, and goes to find out more.

  ACT 2 SCENE 2

  Lines 1–98: In Troy, Priam relays a message from the Greeks, containing a repetition of their demand that the Trojans “Deliver Helen” and thus end the war. Hector suggests that they do so, arguing that many Trojan souls have been lost over “a thing not ours nor worth to us.” Troilus argues that Hector should not weigh “the honour and worth” of so great a king as their father, but Helenus backs Hector, pointing out that Troilus’ arguments lack reason. They continue to argue, sustaining the theme of “worth,” with Troilus asking a question that is pertinent to the whole play: “What’s aught but as ’tis valued?” He points out that Helen is now Paris’ wife and they must “stand firm by honour.” He reminds them that they praised Paris for his capture of Helen and cannot now “Beggar the estimation which [they] prized / Richer than sea and land.”

  Lines 99–219: They are interrupted by Cassandra, who wildly declaims a prophecy: they must return Helen or Troy will burn. Hector is impressed by this “divination,” but Troilus says she is “mad” and that her prophecy is a “brainsick rapture.” Paris declares that he would continue to fight alone for Helen. Priam reminds him that he has “the honey” of Helen as a reward, his brothers have only “the gall” that his actions have resulted in, but Paris echoes Troilus’ arguments concerning honor: his “ransacking” of Helen is only wiped out in his “honourable keeping” of her. If they were to give her up it would be a disgrace to their “great worths” and “shame” to him. Hector claims that Troilus and Paris argue with the “hot passion” of youth rather than reason. Nonetheless, he agrees to continue to fight for Helen, as it is a matter of honor.

  ACT 2 SCENE 3

  Lines 1–83: Thersites contemplates his “fury” at “the elephant Ajax” and calls on Mercury to wreak “vengeance” on the whole Greek camp. Patroclus, hearing him talking, emerges from Achilles’ tent and calls out, but Thersites ignores him. Achilles then appears and they all trade insults, with Thersites branding everyone from Agamemnon to Patroclus “a fool.” They are interrupted by the approach of Agamemnon and several others, at which Achilles returns to his tent, saying that he will “speak with nobody.” He calls Thersites, leaving Patroclus to speak with Agamemnon. Patroclus explains that Achilles is sick and cannot leave his tent, but Agamemnon tells him to inform Achilles that they are there. When Patroclus has gone, Ulysses says that Achilles cannot be sick, they have just seen him “at the opening of his tent.” Ajax declares that Achilles is sick with “pride,” and asks to speak to Agamemnon. They step aside.

  Lines 84–151: Nestor and Ulysses speculate on Ajax’s reasons for speaking to Agamemnon, but are pleased that they appear to have provoked a rift between Ajax and Achilles. Patroclus returns, bringing an impudent message from Achilles. Displeased, Agamemnon sends Patroclus back with the message that they think Achilles “over-proud / And under-honest,” and that if he continues they will have “none of him.” He also sends Ulysses to hear Achilles’ answer. Ajax asks Agamemnon if he thinks that Achilles is a “better man” than him, but Agamemnon, in accordance with Ulysses’ earlier plan, fulsomely praises Ajax. Ajax observes that he hates “a proud man,” and Nestor points out the irony of this statement in an aside (the first of many in this scene that serve to highlight the divided nature of the Greek camp).

  Lines 152–261: Ulysses brings the news that Achilles will not go into battle the next day, although he cannot give any good reason, being apparently consumed by his own “self-worth.” Agamemnon recommends that Ajax speak with Achilles, but Ulysses delivers a careful speech, flattering Ajax and suggesting that this would be insulting to such a “thrice-worthy and right valiant lord.” The Greek leaders continue to praise Ajax, secretly observing the effects of this on his inflated pride and revealing their scorn. They advise Agamemnon to forget Achilles, and then suggest Ajax as the best man to fight Hector.

  ACT 3 SCENE 1

  In Troy, Pandarus speaks with a servant as he waits for Paris. The servant describes Helen as “the mortal Venus, the heart-blood of beauty,” reinforcing her reputation and creating audience anticipation. Paris arrives with Helen, and the audience can finally view the character that is at the center of the play’s events, in a scene that emphasizes the potential disparity between reputation and reality (also witnessed in the explorations of “heroism” so far). Pandarus flatters them both and asks to speak with Paris alone. Helen mocks Pandarus’ obsequious flattery, and remains, interrupting the conversation as Pandarus asks Paris to excuse Troilus’ absence from supper that evening. Despite Pandarus’ denials, Paris and Helen guess that Troilus will be with Cressida. The bawdy tone of the conversation is sustained by Pandarus’ song.

  ACT 3 SCENE 2

  Troilus is waiting to see Cressida. His language is conventionally poetic and lover-like as he asks Pandarus to pluck Cupid’s “painted wings” and fly him to Cressida, but it is undermined by Pandarus’ prosaic response. Pandarus goes to fetch Cressida. As he waits, Troilus anticipates their meeting in language that, while poetic, has clear sexual overtones, reinforcing the essentially physical basis for Troilus and Cressida’s relationship. Pandarus returns with Cressida, and, after several bawdy speeches, leaves them alone. Their brief exchange is romantic, but both characters show an awareness of a sexual undercurrent. They are interrupted by Pandarus, who wishes to know why they have “not done talking,” hurrying them toward the consummation of their relationship and emphasizing the tensions between romance and physical passion. Cressida declares her love for Troilus, but shows uncertainty. Troilus reassures her of his constancy, and his “integrity and truth.” He promises that in the future people will talk of being “As true as Troilus.” Moved, Cressida promises that if she is ever unfaithful, people will talk of being “As false as Cressid.” Pandarus impatiently interrupts and urges them away to “a chamber with a bed,” a direct and unsentimental end to their romantic declarations.

  ACT 3 SCENE 3

  Lines 1–70: In the Greek camp, Calchas reminds the Greek leaders that he has “abandoned Troy” and “Incurred a traitor’s name” on their behalf. He asks for “a little benefit” in return, requesting that a recently captured Trojan be used in exchange for his daughter, Cressida. His argument that this exchange shall be used to “buy” his daughter emphasizes concerns with human “worth,” and Cressida’s increasing role as a commodity. Agamemnon agrees and sends Diomedes to make the exchange, and to tell the Trojans that Ajax is ready to meet Hector’s challenge. Ulysses observes Achilles and Patroclus at the entrance to their tent. He suggests to Agamemnon that the leaders walk past Achilles “As if he were forgot.” Ulysses will go last, and if Achilles questions him, he will show him that it is his pride that is causing the “strangeness” of the others. Agamemnon says that he will “lead the way,” and the others follow his example as he walks past Achilles with barely a word.

  Lines 71–220: Achilles is indignant at this treatment. Seeing Ulysses, who is apparently reading, he decides to interrupt and ask his opinion. Ulysses tells him that he is reading an argument by someone who suggests that, however many good qualities a man may have, he cannot boast of these “virtues,” but instead can only know of them insofar as they are reflected back by the good opinions of others. He gives Ajax as his example, commenting how he seems unaware of the strengths he has, but is already being praised by the “Grecian lords” for his forthcoming fight with Hector “As if his foot were on brave Hector’s breast / And great Troy shrinking.” Achilles asks if his own deeds are “forgot.” Ulysses suggests that the past is easily forgotten, and that only “perseverance … Keeps honour bright,” and that a man has only to stop behaving with honor for “a thousand” ambitious men to rush for his place. He points out that if Achilles continues to “entomb” himself in his tent, his past deeds and reputation will be forgotten. Achilles tries to argue that he has reasons for wanting his privacy, but Ulysses has a final point of persuasion. He tells Achilles that everyone knows that he is “in love” with one of Priam’s daughters, but that he might prefer that his reputation was for the defeat of Hector than the seduction of Polyxena.

  Lines 221–312: Once Ulysses has left, Patroclus claims that it is his fault that Achilles has neglected his duties. He urges Achilles to “rouse” himself and restore his reputation. Achilles asks Patroclus to find Thersites and outlines his intention to invite the Trojan lords “unarmed” to meet him at his tent after the combat. As he talks, Thersites arrives and describes Ajax as proud, “like a peacock.” When Achilles asks him to take a message to Ajax, Thersites says that Ajax will not listen, and invites Patroclus to try to speak to him while he demonstrates how Ajax will behave. They begin their “pageant of Ajax,” furthering the theme of performance, and Thersites shows how Ajax ignores all questions that are put to him. Achilles decides that Thersites will deliver a letter to Ajax, and goes to write it, musing on his own “troubled” mind.

  ACT 4 SCENE 1

  Lines 1–54: In Troy, Aeneas greets Paris, who is accompanied by several other Trojan leaders and Diomedes, the Greek emissary. Aeneas and Diomedes exchange lengthy courtesies, combining fulsome praises with the desire that they will meet each other in battle soon. Paris comments on the irony of this “despiteful’st gentle greeting,” full of “noblest hateful love,” emphasizing again the close relationship between love and conflict. Aeneas questions why Priam has sent for him, and Paris explains that Aeneas is to take Diomedes to Calchas’ house, where Cressida will be exchanged for Antenor. He tells Aeneas in an aside that he believes Troilus to be with Cressida, and asks him to warn his brother of their approach. Aeneas comments that Troilus had rather give up Troy to Greece than give up Cressida, but Paris comments that the “bitter disposition of the time” means that it cannot be helped. Aeneas goes to find Troilus and Cressida.

  Lines 55–84: Paris asks Diomedes who “merits fair Helen most”: himself or Menelaus. Diomedes answers that they both deserve her, as neither seems to care for her “soilure” and both are willing to allow “a costly loss of wealth and friends” in order to keep her. He describes Menelaus as a “cuckold” and Paris as a “lecher” who are equal in their desire for “a whore,” a speech that undermines the romantic/epic qualities of the legend. Paris suggests that Diomedes is “too bitter,” but Diomedes does not believe that Helen is worth the suffering endured by both sides. Paris refuses to be drawn, and they go to find Calchas’ house.

  ACT 4 SCENE 2

  Troilus and Cressida say good-bye after their night together. Their parting is romantic, but this atmosphere is interrupted by the arrival of Pandarus, who coarsely inquires after Cressida’s “maidenhead.” There is a knock at the door, and Cressida sends Pandarus while she takes Troilus to hide. Pandarus denies that Troilus is in the house, but Aeneas insists on speaking to him. Troilus emerges, and Aeneas hurriedly breaks the news that Paris is approaching, and that Cressida is to be exchanged for Antenor. Dismayed, Troilus goes to meet the others, leaving Pandarus to break the news to Cressida, pitying Troilus and cursing Antenor as he does so. Cressida insists that she will not go, claiming that she has forgotten her father and that her only love is for Troilus.

  ACT 4 SCENE 3

  Paris tells Troilus that he must prepare Cressida for the exchange.