83.  Summers, China’s Hong Kong, 105–6.

    84.  Chien-Min Chao, “‘One Country, Two Systems’: A Theoretical Analysis,” Asian Affairs 14, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 107.

    85.  Those more aware of Chinese history would recognize it as part of the ongoing process of turning the multiethnic Qing Empire into a single nation-state. The method used to absorb Hong Kong closely resembled that used to incorporate Tibet in the 1950s. Hung, City on the Edge, 106.

    86.  Jun Zhang, “From Hong Kong’s Capitalist Fundamentals to Singapore’s Authoritarian Governance: The Policy Mobility of Neo-liberalising Shenzhen, China,” Urban Studies Journal 49, no. 13 (October 2012): 2866; for the origins of the phrase, see Isabella M. Weber, How China Escaped Shock Therapy: The Market Reform Debate (New York: Routledge, 2021), 118–19.

    87.  Weber, How China Escaped, 146.

    88.  Min Ye, “Policy Learning or Diffusion: How China Opened to Foreign Direct Investment,” Journal of East Asian Studies 9, no. 3 (September–December 2009): 410.

    89.  Dennis Bloodworth, “Awakening China Courts Hong Kong,” Observer, April 1, 1979, ProQuest.

    90.  Juan Du, The Shenzhen Experiment: The Story of China’s Instant City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 6, 37; for the latter phrase, see Emma Xin Ma and Adrian Blackwell, “The Political Architecture of the First and Second Lines,” in Learning from Shenzhen: China’s Post-Mao Experiment from Special Zone to Model City, ed. Mary Ann O’Donnell, Winnie Wong, and Jonathan Bach (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 135.

    91.  Mary Ann O’Donnell, “Heroes of the Special Zone: Modeling Reform and Its Limits,” in Learning from Shenzhen, 44.

    92.  O’Donnell, “Heroes of the Special Zone,” 45.

    93.  Zhang, “Hong Kong’s Capitalist Fundamentals,” 2858.

    94.  Daniel You-Ren Yang and Hung-Kai Wang, “Dilemmas of Local Governance Under the Development Zone Fever in China: A Case Study of the Suzhou Region,” Urban Studies 45, no. 5–6 (May 2008): 1042.

    95.  Zhang, “Hong Kong’s Capitalist Fundamentals,” 2860.

    96.  Yehua Dennis Wei, “Zone Fever, Project Fever: Development Policy, Economic Transition, and Urban Expansion in China,” Geographical Review 105, no. 2 (April 2015): 159.

    97.  Carolyn Cartier, Globalizing South China (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell 2002), x.

    98.  Du, The Shenzhen Experiment, 56.

    99.  Mihai Cracuin, “Ideology: Shenzhen,” in Great Leap Forward, ed. Chuihua Judy Chung et al. (Cologne: Taschen, 2001), 83; for the latter phrase, see Jonathan Bach, “Shenzhen: From Exception to Rule,” in Learning from Shenzhen, 30; for details on the development of land policy, see Meg Rithmire, Land Bargains and Chinese Capitalism: The Politics of Property Rights Under Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

  100.  Vogel, Transformation of China, 403.

  101.  Zhang, “Hong Kong’s Capitalist Fundamentals,” 2860.

  102.  Vogel, Transformation of China, 403.

  103.  Jin Wang, “The Economic Impact of Special Economic Zones: Evidence from Chinese Municipalities,” Journal of Development Economics 101 (2013): 137.

  104.  See Naughton, Growing Out of the Plan, chap. 4.

  105.  Shaohua Zhan, “The Land Question in 21st Century China,” New Left Review, no. 122 (March/April 2020): 118.

  106.  Milton Friedman, “A Welfare State Syllogism” (speech), Commonwealth Club of California, June 1, 1990, San Francisco, CA, transcript in Commonwealth, July 2, 1990, 386.

  107.  This is not to imply that Friedman’s model was adopted by the Chinese reformers. For details, see Isabella M. Weber, “Origins of China’s Contested Relation with Neoliberalism: Economics, the World Bank, and Milton Friedman at the Dawn of Reform,” Global Perspectives 1, no. 1 (2020): 1–14; and Julian Gewirtz, Unlikely Partners: Chinese Reformers, Western Economists, and the Making of Global China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).

  108.  Milton Friedman, “The Real Lesson of Hong Kong” (lecture), Mandel Hall, University of Chicago, May 14, 1997, transcript, https://miltonfriedman.hoover.org/objects/57006/the-real-lesson-of-hong-kong.

  109.  Simon Xiaobin Zhao, Yingming Chan, and Carola B. Ramón-Berjano, “Industrial Structural Changes in Hong Kong, China Under One Country, Two Systems Framework,” Chinese Geographical Science 22, no. 3 (2012): 308.

  110.  Vogel, Transformation of China, 397; see also Ye, “Policy Learning or Diffusion,” 409.

  111.  Taomo Zhou, “Leveraging Liminality: The Border Town of Bao’an (Shenzhen) and the Origins of China’s Reform and Opening,” Journal of Asian Studies 80, no. 2 (2021): 337–61.

  112.  Milton Friedman, “Questions and Answers with Milton Friedman,” HKCER Letters 23, November 1993, https://hkcer.hku.hk/Letters/v23/rq&a.htm.

  113.  See Maurice Adams et al., eds., The Constitutionalization of European Budgetary Constraints (Portland, OR: Hart, 2014); and Hilary Appel and Mitchell A. Orenstein, From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 100.

  114.  Germany in 2009, Austria in 2011, and Italy in 2012.

  115.  Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, rev. ed. (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), 9.

  116.  Walter Block in Milton Friedman, “A Statistical Note on the Gastil-Wright Survey of Freedom,” in Freedom, Democracy and Economic Welfare, ed. Michael Walker (Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute, 1988), 134.

  117.  James Gwartney, Walter Block, and Robert Lawson, “Measuring Economic Freedom,” in Rating Global Economic Freedom, ed. Stephen T. Easton and Michael A. Walker (Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute, 1992), 156.

  118.  Gwartney, Block, and Lawson, “Measuring Economic Freedom,” 160.

  119.  James Gwartney and Robert Lawson, Economic Freedom of the World: 1997 Annual Report (Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute, 1997), 27.

  120.  James Gwartney, Robert Lawson, and Walter Block, Economic Freedom of the World: 1975–1995 (Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute, 1995), 64.

  121.  Richard B. McKenzie and Dwight R. Lee, Quicksilver Capital: How the Rapid Movement of Wealth Has Changed the World (New York: Free Press, 1991).

  122.  Ian Vásquez and Tanja Porcnik, The Human Freedom Index 2016 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2016), 5–7.

  123.  Goodstadt, “Business Friendly and Politically Convenient—the Historical Role of Functional Constituencies,” 53, https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk.

  124.  Ngok Ma, “Reinventing the Hong Kong State or Rediscovering It? From Low Interventionism to Eclectic Corporatism,” Economy and Society 38, no. 3 (2009): 510, 516; and Jeffrey Wasserstrom, Vigil: Hong Kong on the Brink (New York: Columbia Global Reports, 2020), 45.

  125.  Keith Bradsher and Chris Buckley, “Hong Kong Leader Reaffirms Unbending Stance on Elections,” New York Times, October 20, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/21/world/asia/leung-chun-ying-hong-kong-china-protests.html.

  126.  Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy’s Third Wave,” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 2 (Spring 1991): 12–35.

  127.  Brian Fong, “In-between Liberal Authoritarianism and Electoral Authoritarianism: Hong Kong’s Democratization Under Chinese Sovereignty, 1997–2016,” Democratization 24, no. 4 (2017): 724–25.

  128.  See Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 2.

  129.  Lauren A. Benton, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 290.

  130.  Ogle, “Archipelago Capitalism,” 1432.

  131.  James Ferguson, Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 48.

  132.  Vogel, Transformation of China, 415.

  133.  Bach, “Shenzhen,” 24.

  134.  Carolyn Cartier, “Zone Analog: The State–Market Problematic and Territorial Economies in China,” Critical Sociology 44, no. 3 (2018): 465.

  135.  Andrew Mertha, “‘Fragmented Authoritarianism 2.0’: Political Pluralization in the Chinese Policy Process,” China Quarterly, no. 200 (December 2009): 995.

  136.  Wasserstrom, Vigil, 42.

  137.  Carroll, History of Hong Kong, 229.

  138.  Thomas K. Cheng, “Sherman vs. Goliath?: Tackling the Conglomerate Dominance Problem in Emerging and Small Economies—Hong Kong as a Case Study,” Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 37, no. 1 (2017): 89.

  139.  Cheng, “Sherman vs. Goliath,” 90.

  140.  Thomas Piketty and Li Yang, “Income and Wealth Inequality in Hong Kong, 1981–2020: The Rise of Pluto-Communism?,” World Inequality Lab Working Paper, no. 18 (June 2021): 2.

  CHAPTER 2: CITY IN SHARDS

      1.  Yair Mintzker, “What Is Defortification? Military Functions, Police Roles, and Symbolism in the Demolition of German City Walls in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” German Historical Institute Bulletin, no. 48 (Spring 2011): 46.

      2.  Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, vol. 1, The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible (London: William Collins Sons, 1979), 510.

      3.  Maria Kaika, “Architecture and Crisis: Re-Inventing the Icon, Re-Imag(in)ing London and Re-Branding the City,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 35, no. 4 (October 2010): 459. In 2006, the Corporation of London’s name was changed to the City of London Corporation.

      4.  Shaxson, Treasure Islands, 71.

      5.  Shaxson, 71.

      6.  Matthew Eagleton-Pierce, “Uncovering the City of London Corporation: Territory and Temporalities in the New State Capitalism,” Environment & Planning A: Economy and Space (2022): 5, https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X221083986.

      7.  Kaika, “Architecture and Crisis,” 459.

      8.  Nicholas Shaxson, The Finance Curse: How Global Finance Is Making Us All Poorer (New York: Grove, 2019), 59. The colonial background is important, as they often inherited British Common Law. Manuel B. Aalbers, “Financial Geography I: Geographies of Tax,” Progress in Human Geography 42, no. 6 (2018): 920.

      9.  Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1938), 22.

    10.  The story of the redevelopment of the Docklands is a set piece in the popular textbook Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design Since 1880, 4th ed. (Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 423–35. Enterprise zones have been objects of close critical academic examination since their creation. For two excellent recent accounts see Timothy P. R. Weaver, Blazing the Neoliberal Trail: Urban Political Development in the United States and the United Kingdom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), chap. 6; and Sam Wetherell, “Freedom Planned: Enterprise Zones and Urban Non-Planning in Post-War Britain,” Twentieth Century British History 27, no. 2 (2016): 266–89. For “Hong Kong on Thames,” see Martin Pawley, “Electric City of Our Dreams,” New Society, June 13, 1986, 12.

    11.  Hall, Cities of Tomorrow, 390.

    12.  Geoffrey Howe, “A Zone of Enterprise to Make All Systems ‘Go,’” Conservative Central Office News Service, June 26, 1978, https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/111842.

    13.  Ezra Vogel, Japan Is Number One: Lessons for America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).

    14.  James Anderson, “The ‘New Right,’ Enterprise Zones and Urban Development Corporations,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 14, no. 3 (September 1990): 474.

    15.  John Hoskyns and Norman Strauss, “Stepping Stones” Report (final text), Centre for Policy Studies, November 14, 1977, https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/111771.

    16.  Schenk, “Negotiating Positive Non-interventionism,” 352.

    17.  GDP data available through the World Bank, https://data.worldbank.org.

    18.  Howe, Conflict of Loyalty, 361.

    19.  Peter Hall, “Enterprise Zones and Freeports Revisited,” New Society, March 24, 1983, 460. On the non-plan, see Anthony Fontenot, Non-Design: Architecture, Liberalism, and the Market (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2021), 243–51; and Wetherell, “Freedom Planned: Enterprise Zones and Urban Non-Planning in Post-War Britain,” 275.

    20.  Madsen Pirie, “A Short History of Enterprise Zones,” National Review, January 23, 1981, 26.

    21.  Harvey D. Shapiro, “Now, Hong Kong on the Hudson?,” New York, April 26, 1982, 35–37.

    22.  Stuart M. Butler, “The Enterprise Zone as a Political Animal,” Cato Journal 2, no. 2 (Fall 1982): 373.

    23.  Butler, “Political Animal,” 376.

    24.  Butler, 377.

    25.  Paul Johnson in Butler, “Political Animal,” 374.

    26.  Jonathan Potter and Barry Moore, “UK Enterprise Zones and the Attraction of Inward Investment,” Urban Studies 37, no. 8 (2000): 1280.

    27.  Sue Brownill and Glen O’Hara, “From Planning to Opportunism? Re-Examining the Creation of the London Docklands Development Corporation,” Planning Perspectives 30, no. 4 (2015): 549.

    28.  Wetherell, “Freedom Planned,” 287.

    29.  Barry M. Rubin and Craig M. Richards, “A Transatlantic Comparison of Enterprise Zone Impacts: The British and American Experience,” Economic Development Quarterly 6, no. 4 (1992): 435; and “Enterprise Zones: Do They Go Too Far or Not Far Enough?,” Sunday Times (London), August 12, 1984, The Sunday Times Historical Archive, Gale.

    30.  Chris Tighe, “Slow Go in Go-Go Areas,” Sunday Times (London), August 1, 1982, The Sunday Times Historical Archive, Gale.

    31.  John Harrison, “Buy a Building for Free,” Sunday Times (London), February 8, 1987, The Sunday Times Historical Archive, Gale.

    32.  Peter Shearlock, “How to Build a Tax Haven,” Sunday Times (London), February 3, 1985, The Sunday Times Historical Archive, Gale.

    33.  Alan Walters to Margaret Thatcher, July 5, 1982, https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/218360.

    34.  Quoted in Anderson, “The ‘New Right,’ Enterprise Zones and Urban Development Corporations,” 479.

    35.  Anderson, “The ‘New Right,’” 468.

    36.  Doreen Massey, “Enterprise Zones: A Political Issue,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 6, no. 3 (1982): 429.

    37.  David Harvey, “The Invisible Political Economy of Architectural Production,” in The Invisible in Architecture, ed. Ole Bouman and Roemer van Toorn (New York: Academy Editions, 1994), 426.

    38.  Perry Anderson, letter to author, September 11, 2018.

    39.  Anderson, “The ‘New Right,’” 483.

    40.  Göran Therborn, Cities of Power: The Urban, the National, the Popular, the Global (New York: Verso, 2017), 50.

    41.  Pawley, “Electric City,” 12.

    42.  Jo Thomas, “London Financial District Going to the Isle of Dogs,” New York Times, January 7, 1986, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

    43.  Sara Stevens, “‘Visually Stunning’ While Financially Safe: Neoliberalism and Financialization at Canary Wharf,” Ardeth (2020): 87–89, http://journals.openedition.org/ardeth/1153.

    44.  Pawley, “Electric City.”

    45.  Sue Brownill, Developing London’s Docklands: Another Great Planning Disaster? (London: Paul Chapman, 1990), 50; Thomas, “Going to the Isle of Dogs”; and Roy Porter, London: A Social History (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 381.

    46.  Nigel Broackes quoted in Weaver, Blazing the Neoliberal Trail, 262.

    47.  Anderson, “The ‘New Right,’” 483.

    48.  E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), 38.

    49.  David Edgerton, The Rise and Fall of the British Nation: A Twentieth Century History (London: Penguin, 2018), 290.

    50.  Edgerton, Rise and Fall, 310–11.

    51.  Rob Harris, London’s Global Office Economy: From Clerical Factory to Digital Hub (London: Routledge, 2021), 6.