175. Thompson, Customs in Common, p. 234

  176. Randall, Riotous Assemblies, p. 313

  177. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5043

  178. Fryer, Staying Power, p. 96

  179. The Susan Burney Letters Project, Letter 2, ‘The Gordon Riots, St Martin’s Lane, 8 June 1780’, Nottingham University (online)

  180. Ibid.

  181. George F.E. Rudé, ‘The Gordon Riots: A Study of the Rioters and Their Victims: The Alexander Prize Essay’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 6, 1956, pp. 93–114

  182. The Susan Burney Letters Project, Letter 2, ‘The Gordon Riots, St Martin’s Lane, 8 June 1780’

  183. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5443, 5218

  184. Jo Stanley, ‘Luddite Women’, Women’s History Network, 30 April 2012, Women’s History Network (online)

  185. Ibid.

  186. Bamford in Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5493

  187. Emma Speed, ‘“A Deep-Rooted Abhorrence of Tyranny . . .”: Women at Peterloo’, Red Flag Walks (online), 15 August 2018

  188. Ibid.

  189. Ibid.

  190. Ibid.

  191. Robert Poole, ‘Peterloo Massacre: How Women’s Bravery Helped Change British Politics Forever’, The Conversation, 15 August 2019 (online)

  192. Speed, ‘“A Deep-Rooted Abhorrence of Tyranny . . .”’

  193. Bamford, Chapter 34, in Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850

  194. Poole, ‘Peterloo Massacre’

  195. Ibid.

  196. Richard Carlile quoted in Speed, ‘“A Deep-Rooted Abhorrence of Tyranny . . .”’

  197. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5502

  198. Poole, ‘Peterloo Massacre’

  199. Bamford in Speed, ‘“A Deep-Rooted Abhorrence of Tyranny . . .”’

  200. Speed, ‘“A Deep-Rooted Abhorrence of Tyranny . . .”’

  201. Ibid.

  202. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5515

  203. Ibid., loc 5510

  204. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5562

  205. Ibid., loc 819

  206. Ibid., loc 5575

  207. ‘Address of the Female Political Union of Newcastle’, Northern Star, 2 February 1839

  208. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 5535

  209. David Pickering, Dictionary of Witchcraft, Cassell, 1996

  210. ‘The Swimming of Witches’, Foxearth and District Local History Society (online)

  211. Ó Danachair (ed.), The Newgate Calendar, Vol. 5, p. 183

  212. Ibid.

  213. John Beattie in Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 6349

  214. ‘Charlotte Walker, c.1754–1806’, London Lives 1690 to 1800 (online)

  215. Ó Danachair (ed.), The Newgate Calendar, Vol. 4, p. 139

  216. Bourke, Rape, loc 1137

  217. Bridge, ‘Prizefighting women of Victorian Britain . . .’

  218. ‘History of Abortion Law in the UK’, Abortion Rights (online)

  219. Patrick Wilson, Murderess: A Study of the Women Executed in Britain since 1843, Joseph, 1971, pp. 150–3

  220. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 1668, 1701

  221. ‘Progress of a Woman of Pleasure: Prostitutes in 18th Century London’, Jane Austen’s World, 24 March 2012 (online)

  222. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and London Poor, 1862, p. 476

  223. Martha Vicinus, Suffer and Be Still, Methuen, 1980, p. 81

  224. Hufton, The Prospect Before Her, p. 312

  225. Henry Mayhew, ‘Letter XI’, Morning Chronicle, 23 November 1849, Victorian London (online)

  226. Hallie Rubenhold, Harris’s List of Covent Garden Ladies, London, 2005, p. 145

  227. Ibid., p. 107

  228. Ibid., p. 57

  229. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 1479, 1701

  230. J.J. Tobias, Nineteenth-Century Crime: Prevention and Punishment, David & Charles, 1972, p. 62

  231. Ó Danachair (ed.), The Newgate Calendar, supplement 2, p. 362

  232. Ibid.

  233. Rachel Knowles, ‘The Magdalen House in Regency London’, 6 July 2017, Regency History (online)

  234. Ibid.

  235. S. Toulalan, ‘“Is He a Licentious Lewd Sort of a Person?” Constructing the Child Rapist in Early Modern England’, Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 23, No. 1, January 2014, pp. 21–52

  236. Anthony Simpson, ‘Popular Perceptions of Rape as a Capital Crime: The Press and the Trial of Francis Charteris in the Old Bailey’, Law and History Review, Vol. 22, 2004, pp. 27–70

  237. Toulalan, ‘“Is He a Licentious Lewd Sort of a Person?”’

  238. J.M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England 1660–1800, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 126

  239. Ibid., p. 130.

  240. A. Clark, Women’s Silence, Men’s Violence: Sexual Assault in England 1770–1845, Pandora, 1987, p. 58

  241. G. Walker, ‘Rereading Rape and Sexual Violence in Early Modern England’, Gender & History, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1998, pp. 5–7

  242. J. Kermode and G. Walker, ‘Introduction’, in J. Kermode and G. Walker (eds), Women, Crime and the Courts in Early Modern England, University of North Carolina Press, 1994, p. 14

  243. Bourke, Rape, loc 7738

  244. Peter Radford, ‘Was the Long Eighteenth Century a Golden Age for Women in Sport?: The Cases of Mme Bunel and Alicia Thornton’, Early Modern Women, Vol. 12, No. 1, Fall 2017, pp. 183–94

  245. Peter Radford, ‘Glimpses of Women Athletes in 18th-century England’, Folger Shakespeare Library, 11 February 2022

  246. P.E.B. Porter in Around and About Saltash, 1905, cited S. Baring-Gould, Cornish Characters and Strange Events, Bodley Head, 1925, Vol. 2, pp. 289–95

  247. Ellis in Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 2697

  248. Rizzo, Companions Without Vows, p. 14

  249. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 895, 715

  250. Anna Clarke, in ibid., loc 5950

  251. Linda, M. Austin, ‘Ruskin and the Ideal Woman,’ South Central Review, Vol. 4, No. 4, Winter, 1987, pp. 28–39

  252. Mayhew in Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 245 and 533

  253. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, p. 120

  254. Melanie Renee Ulrich, Victoria’s Feminist Legacy, How Nineteenth-Century Women Imagined the Queen, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Texas, 2005, p. 42

  255. Katherine Margaret Atkinson, Abduction: The Story of Ellen Turner, Blenkins Press, 2002, p. 78

  256. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650–1850, loc 2355

  257. Ibid., loc 819

  258. Samuel Bamford, ‘To Jemima’, Poem Hunter (online)

  259. Yalom, A History of the Wife, pp. 177–8

  260. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 224

  261. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, Harvard University Press, 1990, loc 1356

  262. John A. Eisenberg, The Limits of Reason: Indeterminacy in Law, Education and Morality, Transaction Publishers, 1992, p. 115

  263. Ibid.

  264. Ibid.

  265. Quoted in Marlene LeGates, ‘The Cult of Womanhood in Eighteenth-Century Thought’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, Autumn 1976, pp. 21–39

  266. Yalom, A History of the Wife, p. 182

  267. Rebecca Jennings, A Lesbian History of Britain: Love and Sex Between Women Since 1500, Greenworld Publishing, 2007, p. 51

  268. Rizzo, Companions Without Vows, p. 6

  269. Lawrence Stone, ‘Judicial Separation’, Road to Divorce: England 1530–1987, Oxford, 1990, pp. 183–230

  270. For Lord Grosvenor: Stella Tillyard, A Royal Affair: George III, Random House, 2010, pp. 169–75; and for Lord Cloncurry: Colin Gibson, Dissolving Wedlock, Routledge, 1993, p. 34

  271. Kathrin Levitan, ‘Redundancy, the “Surplus Woman” Problem, and the British Census, 1851–1861’, Women’s History Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, July 2008, pp. 359–76

  272. Eisenberg, The Limits of Reason, p. 115

  273. Greg, ‘Why Are Women Redundant?’

  274. Ibid.

  275. Ronald Trumbach, ‘London’s Sapphists’, in Julia Epstein and Kristina Straub (eds), Bodyguards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, Routledge, 1991, p. 131

  276. Ibid., p. 121

  277. Ibid.

  278. Emma Donoghue, Passions Between Women, Bello, 2015, p. 300

  279. Helena Whitbread (ed.), The Secret Diaries of Miss Anne Lister, Whitbread, 1990, loc 4599 and 4651

  280. Ibid., loc 3656

  281. Trumbach, ‘London’s Sapphists’, p. 113

  282. Ibid., p. 132

  283. Donoghue, Passions Between Women, p. 163

  284. Jennings, A Lesbian History of Britain, p. 43

  285. Trumbach, ‘London’s Sapphists’, p. 114

  286. Lillian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men, Women’s Press, 1985, p. 164

  287. Edmund Burke to Eleanor Charlotte Butler and Sarah Ponsonby, Beconsfield, 30 July 1790, Rictor Norton (online)

  288. Donoghue, Passions Between Women, p. 176

  289. Danuta Kean, ‘Jane Austen’s Lesbianism Is as Fictional as Pride and Prejudice’, Guardian, 31 May 2017

  290. ‘LGBTQ+ History’, English Heritage (online)

  291. Kristina Straub in Epstein and Straub (eds), Bodyguards, p. 147

  292. Tammy M. Proctor, Female Intelligence: Women and Espionage in the First World War, New York University Press, 2003, p. 16

  293. Ó Danachair (ed.), The Newgate Calendar, Vol. 5, p. 55

  294. The Female Sailor, undated broadsheet, reproduced in Margaret S. Creighton and Lisa Norling, Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700–1920, JHU Press, 1996, p. 36

  295. Grace di Meo, quoted in Bridge, ‘Prizefighting Women of Victorian Britain . . .’

  296. Trumbach, ‘London’s Sapphists’, p. 123

  297. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 1405

  298. Trumbach, ‘London’s Sapphists’, p. 117

  299. Donoghue, Passions Between Women, p. 69

  300. Ibid.

  301. Sharon Marcus, Between Women: Friendship, Desire and Marriage in Victorian England, Princeton University Press, 2007, loc 4192

  302. Rizzo, Companions Without Vows, p. 208

  303. Donoghue, Passions Between Women, p. 78

  304. Betty Bennett, Mary Diana Dods: A Gentleman and a Scholar, Hopkins University Press, 1995

  305. ‘Sarah Geals, 18 September 1865’, Proceedings of the Old Bailey Online

  306. Ibid.

  307. Ibid.

  308. Gary Kates, ‘Gender and Power in 1777’, in Epstein and Straub (eds), Bodyguards, p. 186

  309. L.R. McRobbie, ‘The Incredible Chevalier d’Eon, Who Left France as a Male Spy and Returned as a Christian Woman’, Atlas Obscura, 29 July 2016

  310. Ibid.

  311. Jeanne Campan, Memoirs of the Court of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, Floating Press, 2009

  312. ‘Mrs Bateman’, London Remembers (online)

  Part 7: 1857–1928 Separate Spheres

  1. Erika Rackley and Rosemary Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks: Celebrating the History of Women and Law in the UK and Ireland, Bloomsbury, 2018, loc 1875

  2. Bodichon in Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 1822

  3. Ibid., loc 1824

  4. ‘Cochrane’, The Jurist: Reports of Cases, S. Sweet, 1840, p. 534

  5. Marilyn Yalom, A History of the Wife, HarperCollins, 2001, p. 271

  6. From Caroline Norton’s Submission to parliamentary debate on Matrimonial Causes Act, 1857, in Yalom, A History of the Wife, pp. 186–7

  7. Yalom, A History of the Wife, p. 186

  8. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 1993

  9. ‘Agricultural Labourers’ Wages 1850–1914’, History of Wages (online)

  10. Lacey in Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 1986

  11. H. Young, ‘Negotiating Female Property – and Slave-Ownership in the Aristocratic World’, Historical Journal, Vol. 63, No. 3, 2020, pp. 581–602

  12. Lacey in Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 2077

  13. G. Frost, ‘A Shock to Marriage?: The Clitheroe Case and the Victorians’, in G. Robb and N. Erber (eds), Disorder in the Court, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999

  14. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 3005

  15. Ibid., loc 3030

  16. Yalom, A History of the Wife, p. 270

  17. Ibid., p. 271

  18. ‘The Lanchester Case’, British Medical Journal, 2 November 1895, 2: 1127

  19. ‘Edith Lanchester: A Socialist Pioneer Against Patriarchy’, Workers Liberty (online), 5 September 2021

  20. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 5161, 5266

  21. Joanna Bourke, Rape: A History from 1860 to the Present, Virago, 2007, loc 6239

  22. Kate Woodward, The Story of the Cooperative Women’s Guild, Co-operative Heritage Trust (online), 28 May 2020

  23. Michael Faraday, The Times, 7 July 1855

  24. Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness, Feminist Press, 2011, loc 920

  25. From Sermon XXXIV. on Matt. XXV. 36., published in The Arminian Magazine [. . .]. Consisting chiefly of Extracts and Original Treatises on Universal Redemption, Printed by J. Paramore, October 1786

  26. Ehrenreich and English, Complaints and Disorders, loc 920

  27. Susie Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914: A Social History, Phoenix Press, 2003, loc 2000s

  28. Quoted in Bourke, Rape, loc 2419 and 2427

  29. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 1409, 1224

  30. Deborah Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls: Women Workers in World War One, Tauris, 2000, p. 107

  31. William Acton, Prostitution, Considered in Its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects, 1857

  32. A woman registered as a prostitute, quoted in Anna Faherty, ‘The Prostitute Whose Pox Inspired Feminists’, The Outsiders, Wellcome Collection, Part 6, 20 July 2017

  33. An account of a complaint from a poor woman, in Mrs Butler’s third letter, from Kent, The Shield, 9 March 1870

  34. John Frith, ‘Syphilis: Its Early history and Treatment until Penicillin and the Debate on Its Origins’, History, Vol. 20, No. 4

  35. A woman registered as a prostitute, quoted in Faherty, ‘The Prostitute Whose Pox Inspired Feminists’

  36. J.R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State, Cambridge University Press, 1982, p. 49

  37. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 2750

  38. Faherty, ‘The Prostitute Whose Pox Inspired Feminists’

  39. Ibid.

  40. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 5586

  41. ‘Women’s Protest‘, article published by the LNA in the Daily News, 1 January 1870

  42. Rafia Zakaria, Against White Feminism, Hamish Hamilton, 2021, loc 1773

  43. Antoinette M. Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915, University of North Carolina, 1994, p. 146

  44. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 2586

  45. Faherty, ‘The Prostitute Whose Pox Inspired Feminists’

  46. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 5342

  47. Norton, Letter to the Queen on Chancellor Cranworth’s Marriage and Divorce Bill of 1855

  48. Tessa Boase, Mrs Pankhurst’s Purple Feather, Aurum Press, 2018, p. 237

  49. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 5651

  50. Eliza Lynn Linton, ‘Modern English Women’, London Review, No. 11, 15 December 1860

  51. Boase, Mrs Pankhurst’s Purple Feather, p. 201

  52. Ibid., p. 204

  53. Melanie Renee Ulrich, Victoria’s Feminist Legacy: How Nineteenth-Century Women Imagined the Queen, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Texas, 2005, p. 31

  54. Boase, Mrs Pankhurst’s Purple Feather, p. 203

  55. Ulrich, Victoria’s Feminist Legacy, p. 17

  56. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 1919

  57. Ibid., loc 2369

  58. Janet Smith, ‘First Woman Prospective Parliamentary Candidate, Helen Taylor, 1885’, in Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 2386

  59. Ibid.

  60. Steinbach, Women in England 1760–1914, loc 5543

  61. ‘Women’s Suffrage Timeline’, British Library (online)

  62. ‘Who Were the Suffragettes?’, Museum of London (online)

  63. Miss H, quoted in June Purvis (ed.), Votes for Women, Routledge, 2002, p. 139

  64. June Purvis, ‘Cat and Mouse: Force Feeding the Suffragettes’, BBC History Magazine, June 2009

  65. Julia Bush, Women Against the Vote: Female Anti-Suffragism in Britain, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 3

  66. Gail Braybon, Women Workers in the First World War, Routledge, 2012

  67. Lord Cecil, Debate: Clause 1 (The Capacity of Women to Be Members of Parliament), Hansard, 6 November 1918, Vol. 110 cc 2186-202

  68. Lorraine Dowler, ‘Amazonian Landscapes: Gender, War and Historical Repetition’, in Colin Flint (ed.), The Geography of War and Peace: From Death Camps to Diplomats, Oxford University Press, 2004, p 144

  69. Nancy Astor on her time as a Member of Parliament, Audio Recording, 2 October 1956, British Library

  70. Sheila Jeffreys, The Spinster and Her Enemies, Spinifex, 1997, p. 89

  71. Melanie Reynolds, ‘Ann Ellis and the 1875 Weavers Strike’, The Dewsbury Partnership (online)

  72. H. Hartmann, ‘Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex’, Signs, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1976, pp. 137–69, p. 156

  73. Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, p. 107

  74. ‘Mary MacArthur and the Cradley Heath Women Chainmakers’, Strike of 1910’, National Education Union (online)

  75. Ibid.

  76. ‘Women and Work: 19th and Early 20th Century’, Striking Women (online)

  77. T. Thorpe, T. Oliver, G. Cunningham, Reports to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Use of Phosphorus in the Manufacture of Lucifer Matches, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1899

  78. Rackley and Auchmuty, Women’s Legal Landmarks, loc 2797