2.  The best account of the Madisonian experiment in foreign policy is Peter Onuf and Nicholas Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World: The Law of Nations in an Age of Revolutions (Madison, Wisconsin: Madison House Publishers, 1993). Also see Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

  3.  Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 186.

  4.  For Northern “democrats,” Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Library of America, 1986), 440, 443, and passim.

  5.  Gregory May, Jefferson’s Treasure: How Albert Gallatin Saved the New Nation from Debt (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2018), 7.

  6.  Raymond Walters Jr., Albert Gallatin: Jeffersonian Financier & Diplomat (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 1.

  7.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 7.

  8.  Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson, 80.

  9.  For the slight speciousness of the assertion concerning Pennsylvanians’ reasons for distilling, Thomas K. McCraw, The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 197. For the claim that this accounted for their distilling, Albert Gallatin, “Petition Against Excise,” 1792, The Writings of Albert Gallatin, ed. Henry Adams (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1879), 1:2–4.

  10.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 43; AH to GW, August 5, 1794, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05–16–02–0357.

  11.  McCraw, The Founders and Finance, 196–97.

  12.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 44–45.

  13.  Ibid., 46–7.

  14.  Albert Gallatin, “The Speech of Albert Gallatin, a Representative from the County of Fayette, in the House of Representatives of the General Assembly of Pennsylvania [January 3, 1795,]…,” The Writings of Albert Gallatin, 3:1–53, at 7, Online Library of Liberty (Liberty Fund), https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/gallatin-the-writings-of-albert-gallatin-vol-3.

  15.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 49.

  16.  McCraw, The Founders and Finance, 199.

  17.  Albert Gallatin, “Declaration of the Committees of Fayette County,” September 1794, The Writings of Albert Gallatin,1:4–9; May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 54.

  18.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 55.

  19.  Ibid., 69, 72.

  20.  Ibid., 35–7.

  21.  Ibid., 66.

  22.  AH to Robert Morris, April 30, 1781, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01–02–02–1167.

  23.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 67.

  24.  Ibid., 68.

  Chapter 5

  1.  The following discussion of Gallatin’s pamphlet relies heavily on Thomas K. McCraw, The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 205–17, and on Gregory May, Jefferson’s Treasure: How Albert Gallatin Saved the New Nation from Debt (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2018), 74–76.

  2.  JM to TJ, January 31, 1796, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01–16–02–0125.

  3.  For Livingston’s rejection and the reasons for it, Robert R. Livingston to TJ, January 7, 1801, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 32:406–09, at 408–09; for the offer to Smith, TJ to Samuel Smith, March 9, 1801, PTJ, 33:234; Samuel Smith to TJ, PTJ, 33:339–40, at 339. Also see TJ to JM, March 12, 1801, The Papers of James Madison: Secretary of State Series (hereafter, PJMSS), ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1986–), 1:12–13.

  4.  Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson & the New Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 662.

  5.  TJ to Wilson Cary Nicholas, June 11, 1801, PTJ, 34:308–10, at 309.

  6.  TJ to James Monroe, June 20, 1801, PTJ, 34:398–99.

  7.  James Sterling Young, The Washington Community, 1800–1828 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), 23–24.

  8.  Ibid., 25.

  9.  Ibid., 26.

  10.  Ibid., 68 and Figure 3, 69.

  11.  Entry for October 31, 1803, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 1779–1821, ed. David Waldstreicher (New York: Library of America, 2017), 101.

  12.  Entry for December 20, 1803, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 102.

  13.  Young, The Washington Community, 1800–1828, 73.

  14.  TJ to the Senate, March 5, 1801, PTJ, 33:188–89.

  15.  May, Jefferson’s Treasure, 97; Nancy Isenberg, Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York: Penguin, 2007), 226. Isenberg quotes Gallatin telling his wife that of the pending appointments, the “most obnoxious to the other party, and the only one which I think will be rejected, is … a certain friend of yours.”

  16.  Among studies arguing that mishandling the patronage led to enormous problems are Joel Silbey, Storm Over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005) (Polk’s mistakes led to the Civil War); and T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (New York: Vintage, 1952) (chiefly political selections of Union generals early on by Lincoln and governors go far toward explaining early Union battlefield setbacks). Washington, as Stuart Leibiger, Founding Friendship: George Washington, James Madison, and the Creation of the American Republic (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), shows, relied extensively on advice from Madison.

  17.  William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), 274.

  18.  For Bolingbroke’s concept and the early presidency, Ralph Ketchum, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).

  19.  William Branch Giles to TJ, March 16, 1801, PTJ, 33:310–12, at 311.

  20.  Walter Jones to TJ, March 14, 1801, PTJ, 33:283–88, at 285–88.

  21.  Ibid., n. at 33:288.

  22.  TJ to Walter Jones, March 31, 1801, PTJ, 33:506.

  Chapter 6

  1.  Cf. TJ, Notes on New York Patronage, [after February 17, 1801], The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 33:11; TJ, Notes on New Jersey Patronage, PTJ, [ca. March 5, before June 1801], 183; TJ, List of John Adams’s Judicial Appointments, [February 18, 1801], PTJ, 33:15; TJ, List of John Adams’s Appointments, February 23, 1801, PTJ, 33:52; Jacob Wagner’s Memorandum on State Department Clerks, [March 1801], PTJ, 33:512; TJ, Notes on South Carolina Patronage, [March-November 1801], PTJ, 33:513–14; TJ, Notes on Patronage in New Hampshire, November 10, 1801, PTJ, 35:601.

  2.  TJ to William Duane, July 24, 1803, PTJ, 41:107–10, at 108.

  3.  Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1976), 34.

  4.  TJ, “Circular Letter to Midnight Appointees,” after March 4, 1801, PTJ, 33:172–73.

  5.  For this sentence and the next paragraph, TJ to Archibald Stuart, April 8, 1801, PTJ, 33:555.

  6.  TJ to Wilson Cary Nicholas, June 11, 1801, PTJ, 34:308–10, at 309.

  7.  Nancy Isenberg, Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York: Penguin, 2007), 243–51.

  8.  Far the most dramatic account of the friendship-gone-wrong culminating in the “interview in Weehawken” is Thomas Fleming, Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books, 1999). Also see Interview in Weehawken: The Burr-Hamilton Duel as Told in the Original Documents, Harold C. Syrett and Jean G. Cooke, eds. (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1960).

  9.  John Page to TJ, May 25, 1804, PTJ, 43:488.

  10.  TJ to John Page, June 25, 1804, PTJ, 43:652–53.

  11.  Abigail Adams to TJ, May 20, 1804, PTJ, 43:458–59. Jefferson’s son-in-law forwarded this letter along with his own characterizing Mrs. Adams as remarkable, “The successful rival of her husband in public estimation could not under any circumstances excite sympathy in the breast of an ordinary female.…” John Wayles Eppes to TJ, June 14, 1804, PTJ, 43:582–84, at 584.

  12.  TJ to Abigail Adams, June 13, 1804, PTJ, 43:578–80.

  13.  The book that persuaded most scholars of the general truth of the Hemings tale is Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson & Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997). For the state of the controversy before Gordon-Reed’s book, see Edward L. Ayers and Scott French, “The Strange Career of Thomas Jefferson: Race and Slavery in American Memory, 1943–1993,” in Jeffersonian Legacies, ed. Peter S. Onuf (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 418–56. Several scholars’ dissents are collected in The Jefferson-Hemings Controversy: Report of the Scholars Commission, ed. Robert F. Turner (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2001, 2011).

  14.  Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson & Sally Hemings, 2.

  15.  Ibid., 59, 63.

  16.  Ibid., 61.

  17.  Ibid., 61–62.

  18.  For the whole sad story see Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 216–23.

  19.  TJ to Robert Smith, July 1, 1805, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99–01–02–2005.

  20.  TJ to Abigail Adams, July 22, 1804, The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams, ed. Lester Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 274–76.

  21.  So, for example, under the “Constitution” query of Notes on the State of Virginia, he had referred to provisions of Virginia’s constitution “which when they transgress their acts shall become nullities.” TJ, Notes on the State of Virginia (Philadelphia, 1788), 137, Documenting the American South (https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/jefferson/jefferson.html#p137).

  22.  Abigail Adams to TJ, August 18, 1804, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, 276–78, at 277–78.

  23.  TJ to Abigail Adams, September 11, 1804, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, 278–80, at 278–79.

  24.  Ibid., 278–80, 279.

  25.  Ibid., 278–80, at 280.

  26.  Abigail Adams to TJ, October 25, 1804, The Adam-Jefferson Letters, 280–82, at 281–82.

  Chapter 7

  1.  William Duane to TJ, May 10, 1801, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 34:71–73.

  2.  Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Library of America, 1986), 432.

  3.  Ibid., 433–34.

  4.  Raymond Walters Jr., Albert Gallatin: Jeffersonian Financier & Diplomat (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 240.

  5.  For Jefferson and the Alien and Sedition Acts Crisis, Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Virginia’s American Revolution: From Dominion to Republic, 1776–1840 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), chapter 4; for Jefferson and the Cabell presentment, Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Thomas Jefferson—Revolutionary: A Radical’s Struggle to Remake America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017), 44–46.

  6.  TJ to Justice William Johnson, June 12, 1823, Thomas Jefferson: Writings (New York: Library of America, 1984), 1469–77, at 1474.

  7.  R. Kent Nemyer, John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 134.

  8.  Theodore J. Crackel, “The Military Academy in the Context of Jeffersonian Reform,” in Thomas Jefferson’s Military Academy: Founding West Point (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004), 99–117, at 105.

  9.  For discontinuation of the Duane prosecution, TJ to Edward Livingston, November 1, 1801, PTJ, 35:543–44.

  10.  Cf. TJ, Pardon for David Brown, March 12, 1801, PTJ, 251–52.

  11.  Jefferson at first thought himself lacking in authority to return the money. TJ, “A Bill for the Relief of Sufferers under Certain Illegal Prosecutions,” PTJ, 36:258–59.

  12.  TJ, Pardon for James Thomson Callender, March 16, 1801, PTJ, 309–10.

  13.  Papers of James Madison: Secretary of State Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1986-), 1:120, n. 1.

  14.  James Thomson Callender to TJ, February 23, 1801, PTJ, 33:46–47, at 46; Callender to JM, April 27, 1801, PJMSS,1:117–20.

  15.  PJMSS, 1:117–20, n. 6.

  16.  JM to James Monroe, May 6, 1801, PJMSS, 1:143.

  17.  James Monroe to JM, May 17, 1801, PJMSS, 1:190–91, at 191.

  18.  This and the following paragraph rely on James Monroe to JM, June 4, 1800, PJMSS, 8:537–38. The fine was not so draconian as Callender imagined, if the case of David Brown is any indication. TJ, Pardon for David Brown, March 12, 1801, PTJ, 33:251–52. (Although he had served his eighteen-month sentence, Brown remained in prison because he was unable to pay his fine of $400.)

  19.  James Monroe to JM, May 23, 1801, PJMSS, 1:222–24, at 222, 223.

  20.  Ibid., 1:236, n. 1.

  21.  Albert Gallatin to JM, [May 29, 1801], PJMSS, 1:236.

  22.  JM to James Monroe, June 1, 1801, PJMSS, 1:244–46, at 244–45.

  23.  Ibid., 1:266, n. 1.

  24.  James Monroe to JM, June 6, 1801, PJMSS, 1:265–66.

  25.  Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801–1829 (New York: Macmillan, 1951), 356.

  Chapter 8

  1.  TJ to George Jefferson, March 27, 1801, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 33:465.

  2.  TJ to Benjamin Rush, March 24, 1801, PTJ, 33:436–38.

  3.  TJ to Wilson Cary Nicholas, June 11, 1801, PTJ, 34:308–10, at 309.

  4.  TJ to William Duane, July 24, 1802, PTJ, 41:107–10, at 108.

  5.  “Remonstrance of the New Haven Merchants,” June 18, 1801, PTJ, 34:381–83, and n. at 383.

  6.  C. Peter Magrath, Yazoo: Law and Politics in the New Republic—The Case of Fletcher v. Peck (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), 23–24. See also “Abraham Bishop’s Georgia Speculation Unveiled,” in Magrath, Yazoo, 151–71.

  7.  TJ to the New Haven Merchants, July 12, 1801, PTJ, 34:554–56.

  8.  TJ to Pierpont Edwards, July 12, 1801, PTJ, 34:606–07. For Edwards’s communication of information to Jefferson, Pierpont Edwards to TJ, May 12, 1801, PTJ, 34:90–94, and Pierpont Edwards to TJ, June 10, 1801, PTJ, 34:301–02.

  9.  TJ to William Duane, July 24, 1802, PTJ, 41:107–10, at 108–09.

  Chapter 9

  1.  The following account relies on Daniel L. Dreisbach, Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation Between Church and State (New York: NYU Press, 2002), 9–17.

  2.  Ibid., 161, n. 16.

  3.  Philip Hamburger, Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 157, n. 25.

  4.  The details that follow are at “Presentation of the ‘Mammoth Cheese,’” Editorial Note, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 36:246–49, at 248, unless otherwise noted; Jefferson’s address is TJ To the Committee of Cheshire, Massachusetts, January 1, 1802, PTJ, 36:252.

  5.  For Jefferson in this paragraph, TJ to John Wayles Eppes, January 1, 1802, PTJ, 36:261.

  6.  Dreisbach, Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation, 14.

  7.  Maurizio Valsania, Jefferson’s Body: A Corporeal Biography (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2017).

  8.  The following discussion is based on The Danbury Baptist Association to TJ, October 17, 1801, PTJ, 35:407–08 and n. at 409.

  9.  TJ, “A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom,” PTJ, 2:545–47.