17.  James Madison, for his part, held that if “the legitimate meaning of the Instrument” could not be “derived from the text itself,” “it must be not in the opinions or intentions of the Body which planned & proposed the Constitution, but in the sense attached to it by the people in their respective State Conventions where it recd. all the authority which it possesses” that “a key is to be sought.” JM to Thomas Ritchie, September 15, 1821, PJMRS, 2:381–82, at 381.

  19. Johnson, Irreconcilable Founders, 101–102, citing Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time, vol. 6, The Sage of Monticello (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981), 357.

  Chapter 64

  1.  TJ to Archibald Thweatt, January 19, 1821, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series, ed. J. Jefferson Looney (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 16:556.

  2.  John Taylor, Construction Construed, and Constitutions Vindicated (Richmond: Shepherd & Pollard, 1820).

  3.  TJ to Spencer Roane, March 9, 1821, PTJRS, 17:31.

  4.  Spencer Roane to JM, April 17, 1821, The Papers of James Madison: Retirement Series, David B. Mattern, et al., eds. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 2:302.

  5.  JM to Spencer Roane, May 6, 1821, PJMRS, 2:317–21.

  6.  The following discussion relies on David Johnson, Irreconcilable Founders: Spencer Roane, John Marshall, and the Nature of America’s Constitutional Republic (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2021), 103–05.

  7.  Apparently, Roane did not espy the difficulty posed by this theory that Justice James Iredell highlighted in Calder v. Bull, 3 U.S. 386 (1798).

  8.  JM to Spencer Roane, June 29, 1821, PJMRS, 2:347–48.

  9.  TJ to William Johnson, October 27, 1822, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–3118.

  10.  William Johnson to TJ, December 10, 1822, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–3203.

  11.  TJ to William Johnson, March 4, 1823, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–3373.

  12.  Thomas Jefferson to Joel Barlow, May 3, 1802, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01–37–02–0318.

  13.  William Johnson to TJ, April 11, 1823, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–3448.

  14.  TJ to William Johnson, June 12, 1823, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–3562.

  15.  Donald G. Morgan, Justice William Johnson: The First Dissenter (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1954), 306–07.

  Chapter 65

  1.  This and the next paragraph rely primarily on Jean Edward Smith, John Marshall: Definer of a Nation (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 473–75.

  2.  G. Edward White, The Marshall Court and Cultural Change, 1815–1835, abridged edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 571. The following discussion relies on White’s account, 571–80.

  3.  Michael J. Klarman, “How Great Were the ‘Great’ Marshall Court Decisions?” Virginia Law Review, vol. 87, no. 6 (Oct. 2001): 1111–1184, at 1144.

  5.  Entry for March 3, 1821, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 1779–1821, ed. David Waldstreicher (New York: Library of America, 2017), 1:596–99.

  6.  Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 111–12.

  7.  Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 93.

  8.  Entry for March 4, 1821, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 2:1.

  9.  Entries for February 23, 1821 and March 1, 1821, The Diaries of John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts Historical Society online).

  10.  Entry for March 5, 1821, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 2:1–3.

  11.  Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971), 473–74.

  12.  James Monroe, Second Inaugural Address, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:163–74.

  13. John C. Calhoun to Henry Clay, December 5, 1818, The Papers of John C. Calhoun, ed. Robert L. Meriwether, et al. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1959–2003), 3:341–55, at 350.

  Chapter 66

  1.  Irving Bartlett, John C. Calhoun: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 97. Calhoun’s posture is particularly interesting in light of the fact that his paternal grandmother and a paternal uncle had been killed and “most inhumanely butchered” by upcountry South Carolina Indians. Robert Elder, Calhoun: American Heretic (New York: Basic Books, 2021), 12.

  2.  John Quincy Adams to Henry Middleton, July 5, 1820, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:347–50.

  3.  James Monroe to TJ, April 14, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:304–07.

  4.  John Quincy Adams to Richard Rush, July 28, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:357–61.

  5.  Richard Rush to John Quincy Adams, August 19, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:361–65.

  6.  George Canning to Richard Rush, August 20, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:365–66.

  7.  James Monroe to TJ, October 17, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:323–25.

  8.  TJ to James Monroe, October 24, 1823, The Works of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1905), 12:318–21.

  9.  JM to James Monroe, October 30, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:394–95. See also Irving Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), 438–39.

  10.  Richard Rush to George Canning, August 23, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:366–67.

  11.  Richard Rush to John Quincy Adams, August 23, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:368–69.

  12.  George Canning to Richard Rush, August 23, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:369.

  14.  Richard Rush to George Canning, August 27, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:369–70.

  15.  Richard Rush to John Quincy Adams, August 28, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:370–72.

  16.  George Canning to Richard Rush, August 31, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:372–74.

  17.  Richard Rush to John Quincy Adams, September 8, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:374.

  18.  Richard Rush to James Monroe, September 15, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:374–77.

  19. Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 572, n. 4; Entry for November 7, 1823, The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/jqadiaries/php/, 2:47–49.

  Chapter 67

  1.  Entry for November 21, 1823, The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/jqadiaries/php/, 2:49–52.

  2.  Albert Gallatin to James Monroe, October 26, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:323, n. 1.

  3.  Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 153.

  4.  Ibid., 156.

  5.  James Monroe, Seventh Annual Message, December 3, 1823, The Writings of James Monroe, 6:325–42.

  6.  Francis Walker Gilmer to Dabney Carr, January 15, 1811, The Papers of James Madison: Retirement Series, David B. Mattern, et al., eds. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 2:180–81, n. 1.

  7.  Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971), 369.

  Chapter 68

  1.  Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 160–62.

  2.  James Monroe, “To Congress—Massachusetts’ Claim for Military Compensation,” February 24, 1824, The Writings of James Monroe, 7:8–11, at 8, 11.

  3.  Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 272.

  4.  James Monroe, Veto Message, May 4, 1822, The American Presidency Project online (UC Santa Barbara), https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/veto-message.

  5.  Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe, 166.

  6.  Donald G. Morgan, Justice William Johnson: The First Dissenter (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1954), 122–24. “Today” was 1954. The pamphlet is at “Views on the Subject of Internal Improvements,” The Writings of James Monroe, 6:216–84.

  7.  James Monroe to Congress, March 30, 1824, The Writings of James Monroe, 7:14–17.

  Chapter 69

  1.  Donald Ratcliffe, The One-Party Presidential Contest: Adams, Jackson, and 1824’s Five-Horse Race (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015) 154.

  2.  Ibid., 261–62.

  3.  Ibid., 151.

  4.  Chase C. Mooney, William H. Crawford, 1772–1834 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 249–53.

  5.  Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971), 530 and n. 4.

  6.  Ibid., 497.

  7.  Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time: The Sage of Monticello (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981), 432.

  8.  Ratcliffe, The One-Party Presidential Contest, 154.

  9.  Robert Elder, Calhoun: American Heretic (New York: Basic Books, 2021), 209–10.

  10.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, “Preserving the Patrimony: William Branch Giles and Virginia vs. the Federal Tariff,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 104 (1996): 341–372 (figure at 353).

  11.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, “General Ignorance,” The American Conservative online, August 10, 2012, https://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/general-ignorance/.

  12.  Tim McGrath, James Monroe: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2020), 549.

  13.  Ratcliffe, The One-Party Presidential Contest, 5.

  14.  McGrath, James Monroe, 542–44.

  15.  Malone, Jefferson and His Time, 403.

  16.  McGrath, James Monroe, 553.

  Chapter 70

  1.  James Monroe, Eighth Annual Message, December 7, 1824, The American Presidency Project online (UC Santa Barbara), https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/eighth-annual-message-1.

  2.  Regarding Monroe, see Tim McGrath, James Monroe: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2020), 553, 566. The exchange with Madison is at 566–67.

  3.  Ibid., 566–67.

  4.  Alison Goodyear Freehling, Drift Toward Dissolution: The Virginia Slavery Debate of 1831–1832 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982).

  5.  John Adams to TJ, January 22, 1825, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, The Complete Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 606–07.

  6.  Donald Ratcliffe, The One-Party Presidential Contest: Adams, Jackson, and 1824’s Five-Horse Race (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015), 252.

  7.  TJ to John Adams, February 15, 1825, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, 608–09, at 609.

  8.  John Quincy Adams, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1825, Avalon Project (Yale Law School), https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/qadams.asp.

  9.  John Quincy Adams, First Annual Address, December 6, 1825, Miller Center (The University of Virginia), https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/december-6-1825-first-annual-message.

  10.  TJ, December 24, 1825, “Solemn Declaration and Protest of the Commonwealth of Virginia,” Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98–01–02–5764.

  11.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Thomas Jefferson—Revolutionary: A Radical’s Struggle to Remake America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017), 95–6.

  INDEX

  The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your e-book. Please use the search function on your e-reading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

  Adams, Abigail

  letter to Jefferson

  son’s praise of

  Adams, Henry

  Adams, John

  appointments

  Cabinet

  ceremonies

  election of 1796

  election of 1800

  in France

  Inaugural Address

  letter to Jefferson

  transition to Jefferson

  as vice president

  Adams, John Quincy

  candidate for president

  on Europe

  Inaugural Address

  re Louisiana Purchase

  president

  secretary of State

  support for

  Adams, Samuel

  Addington, Henry

  Alexander I of Russia

  Alexandria Episcopal Church, An Act in effect establishing

  Algiers

  Alien Act

  Alston, William

  Ambrister, Robert

  Amelia Island

  Amendments to the Constitution. See specific amendments

  American Colonization Society (A.C.S.)

  American principles, practiced in Jefferson’s administration

  American Revolution, and slavery

  American Seaman’s Act

  American System (Clay’s)

  Americas, no colonization of, American policy of

  Ames, Fisher

  Amphictyon (pen name)

  Annals of Congress

  Annapolis

  Annapolis Convention of 1786

  antislavery organizations

  appointments

  appropriations

  Arbuthnot, Alexander

  arising under jurisdiction

  Armistead, George

  Armstrong, John

  army

  buildup of

  army

  expenditures

  size of

  standing

  Arnold, Benedict

  Article III of the Constitution

  Articles of Confederation

  Article VII of the Constitution

  Atlantic Frontier cities

  attorney general

  Auckland, Lord

  Aury, Luis

  Austerlitz Campaign

  Bagot, Charles

  Bainbridge, William

  Baltimore

  defense of

  Baltimore Riots of 1812

  Bank Bill

  Bank of the United States

  state laws and taxes affecting

  banks

  chartering of

  federal

  war financing by

  Barbary pirates

  religious justification of behavior

  Barbary states

  Barbé-Marbois, François

  Barbour, James

  Barbour, Philip P.

  Barlow, Joel

  Barney, Commodore

  Barney, Joshua

  Bateman, Ephraim

  Battle of Nations

  Bayard, James

  Berlin Decree

  Biddle, Nicholas

  Bill of Rights (first ten amendments to Constitution)

  Bishop, Samuel

  Blacks

  free

  labor of, and class

  rhetoric against

  Bladensburg, Battle of

  Bleecker, Harmanus

  bleeding

  Blennerhassett, Harman

  Blennerhassett’s Island, assembly on

  blockades

  Bolingbroke

  Bollman, Eric

  Bonaparte. See Napoleon Bonaparte

  Bonaparte, Joseph

  Bonus Bill

  Bonus Bill Veto Message

  Borodino, Battle of

  Boston

  newspapers

  boycotts of trade with Britain

  Brazil

  Breckinridge, John

  Brent, Joseph

  Britain

  and cause of freedom

  merchant marine

  trade with

  See also United Kingdom

  British Empire, North American boundaries of

  Brock, Isaac

  Brockenbrough, William

  broken voyage

  Brooke, Arthur

  Brown, Jacob

  budget, federal

  Bulfinch, Charles

  Burr, Aaron

  accused of treason

  duel with Hamilton

  election of 1800

  grand jury investigation of

  Jefferson’s poor opinion of

  political ambitions

  prosecution of, for conspiracy to split the Union

  resignation from office

  Burr’s Conspiracy

  Cabell, Joseph Carrington

  Cabell Presentment of 1797

  Cadore, duc de

  Calder v. Bull

  Calhoun, John C.