9.  Ibid., 85, n.; 80–81.

  10.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 201.

  11.  Ibid., 203.

  12.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 81–82.

  13.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 205; Hickey, The War of 1812, 83.

  14.  JM to Henry Dearborn, August 9, 1812, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 5:133–34.

  15.  JM to Albert Gallatin, ca. August 26, 1812, PJMPS, 5:208.

  16.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 244–45.

  17.  Moses Smith, from Naval Scenes in the Last War, The War of 1812: Writings from America’s Second War of Independence, ed. Donald R. Hickey (New York: Library of America, 2013), 121–29 (introduction at 121).

  18.  Henry Adams seems to have proven the American account correct. Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison, 313–21.

  19.  Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison, 108–09.

  20.  Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison, 528, 534.

  21. Hickey, The War of 1812, 83.

  Chapter 38

  1.  JM to TJ, August 17, 1812, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 5:165–66.

  2.  James Monroe to Henry Clay, August 28, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012-), 6:246.

  3.  Ibid., 6:246–47, n. 3.

  4.  J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 70.

  5.  Jared Willson to Alvan Stewart, November 9, 1812, The War of 1812: Writings from America’s Second War of Independence, ed. Donald R. Hickey (New York: Library of America, 2013), 160–62 (biographical information in headnote).

  6.  Robert Allen Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), 113; Hickey, The War of 1812, 86 (Van Rensselaer quotation).

  7.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 86–87.

  8.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 543–44.

  9.  Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 548–49.

  11.  Henry Dearborn to JM, December 13, 1812, PJMPS, 5:503–04.

  12.  Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison, 582.

  13.  Albert Gallatin to TJ, December 18, 1812, The Writings of Albert Gallatin, ed. Henry Adams (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1879), 1:530–31.

  14.  For Madison’s assistance to historians in his retirement years, Ralph Ketcham, The Madisons at Montpelier: Reflections on the Founding Couple (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 101–05.

  15.  Henry Lee to JM, February 2, 1827, Founders Online (National Archives), https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/99–02–02–0898.

  16. JM to Henry Lee, February 1827, The Writings of James Madison, Comprising His Public Papers and His Private Correspondence, ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), 9:277–80, n. 1.

  Chapter 39

  1.  James Monroe to JM, September 2, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012-), 6:252–53.

  2.  JM to James Monroe, September 5, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:257–58.

  3.  James Monroe to JM, September 7, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:260–61.

  4.  James Monroe to JM, September 8, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:262–63.

  5.  William Eustis to JM, September 7, 1812, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 5:282–83, at 283.

  6.  JM to James Monroe, September 8, 1812, PJMPS, 5:287–88.

  7.  Announcement, James Monroe, September 9, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:264, and n.

  8.  James Monroe to JM, September 10, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:266, and n. 2.

  9.  James Monroe to Henry Clay, September 17, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:268–69.

  10.  George Hay to James Monroe, October 9, 1812, The Papers of James Monroe, 6:281–83.

  11.  Charles Royster, Light-Horse Harry Lee and the Legacy of the American Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), chapter 4.

  12.  In addition to the chapter of Royster’s book, this account draws on the headnote to SILENCING THE ANTI-WAR PRESS: BALTIMORE, SUMMER 1812, Maryland House of Delegates, Committee of Grievances and Courts of Justice Report on the Baltimore Riots, in The War of 1812: Writings from America’s Second War of Independence, ed. Donald R. Hickey (New York: Library of America, 2013), and on the document itself, 54–68.

  13.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 62.

  14.  Ibid., 57, 59, 62.

  15.  Ibid., 63.

  16.  Ibid., 64.

  17.  John Montgomery to JM, August 9, 1812, PJMPS, 5:135; JM to John Montgomery, August 13, 1812, PJMPS, 5:150.

  Chapter 40

  1.  J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 276–77.

  2.  Irving Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 1812–1836 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), 126–27.

  3.  Albert Gallatin to JM, January 4, 1813, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 5:552.

  4.  Albert Gallatin to JM, January 7, 1813, PJMPS, 5:557–58.

  5.  JM to John Armstrong, January 14, 1813, PJMPS, 5:576; John Armstrong to JM, January 17, 1813, PJMPS, 5:593.

  6.  C. Edward Skeen, John Armstrong, Jr., 1758–1845: A Biography (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981), 124.

  7.  Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 1812–1836, 126.

  8.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 546.

  9.  David G. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 754–55.

  10.  Ibid., 739.

  11.  Ibid., 808.

  12.  Ibid., 852, 853.

  13.  Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 286–91 (Caulaincourt quotation at 290).

  14.  Entry for September 21, 1812, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 1779–1821, ed. David Waldstreicher (New York: Library of America, 2017), 1:247–49.

  15.  Entry for December 7, 1812, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 1:257–58.

  16.  Entry for November 20, 1813, John Quincy Adams: Diaries, 1:279–80.

  17.  William Harris Crawford to JM, March 3, 1813, PJMPS, 6:79–80.

  18.  Ibid., 6:80, n. 1.

  19.  JM, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1813, PJMPS, 6:85–87.

  20.  Ibid., 6:87, n.

  21.  An account that finds Madison’s grounds for war to be inconsistent with Just War Theory is Jonathan Den Hartog, “The War of 1812,” in America and the Just War Tradition, Mark David Hall and J. Daryl Charles, eds. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2019), 74–96.

  22.  For this theme in American war propaganda during the Madison administration, Paul A. Gilje, Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights in the War of 1812 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

  Chapter 41

  1.  Richard Buel Jr., America on the Brink: How the Political Struggle Over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 186.

  3.  Ibid., 186.

  4.  Ibid., 187.

  5.  This and the next paragraph are based on Albert Gallatin to James Monroe, January 4, 1813, The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 6:337–38.

  6.  J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 86.

  7.  Norman K. Risjord, The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 146.

  8.  JM to Congress, May 25, 1813, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), 6:339–43.

  9.  Ibid., 5:573, n. 2.

  10.  Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 95–96.

  11.  Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 821.

  12.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, James Madison and the Making of America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012), 2.

  13.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 115–16; Stagg, The War of 1812, 95 (quotation).

  14.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 557–58.

  15.  Alan Taylor, The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772–1832 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013), 4.

  16.  Ibid., 178.

  17.  Ketcham, James Madison, 558, citing Dolley Madison to Edward Coles, May 12, 1813.

  18.  Annals of Congress, 13th Congress, First Session, 86–90; Raymond Walters Jr., Albert Gallatin: Jeffersonian Financier & Diplomat (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 269.

  19.  PJMPS, 6:388, n. 2.

  20.  JM to the Senate, July 6, 1813, PJMPS, 6:406–07.

  21.  Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 418–19.

  22.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 131.

  23.  Tecumseh: Speech to Henry Procter, September 1813, Hickey, The War of 1812, 323–24.

  24.  Headnote, “John Robinson: from War of 1812,” in Hickey, The War of 1812, 325.

  25.  The following account relies on Hickey, The War of 1812, 131–32, except where noted.

  26.  Stagg, The War of 1812, 92–93.

  27.  Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 43.

  28.  Stagg, The War of 1812, 93.

  29. David G. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 865–941.

  Chapter 42

  1.  James Madison, Annual Message, December 7, 1813, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 7:82–89.

  2.  J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 107; PJMPS, 7:89.

  3.  Irving Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 1812–1836 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), 238; JM to Congress, January 6, 1814, PJMPS, 7:178.

  4.  Brant, James Madison: Commander in Chief, 240.

  5.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 568.

  6.  Ibid., 570.

  7.  John C. Calhoun, Speech on the Dangers of “Factious Opposition,” January 15, 1814, The Papers of John C. Calhoun, ed. Robert L. Meriwether, et al. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1959–2003), 1:189–200.

  8.  David G. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 1001–02; Kevin R. Gutzman, “An Emperor Betrayed: Marmont’s Perfidy Became Part of the Language,” Military History (June 1992), 18–24, 32, 89–90.

  9.  Albert Gallatin to Henry Clay, April 22, 1814, The Papers of Henry Clay, James F. Hopkins, et al., eds. (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1959–1991), 1:883–84.

  10.  Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 39.

  11.  Ibid.

  12.  Garry Wills, James Madison (New York: Times Books, 2002), 126–27.

  13.  JM to John Armstrong, June 3, 1814, PJMPS, 7:534–35; JM to William Jones, June 3, 1814, PJMPS, 535–36; JM to James Monroe, June 3, 1814, PJMPS, 536.

  14.  John Armstrong to JM, June 4, 1814, PJMPS, 7:537; William Jones to JM, June 6, 1814, PJMPS, 7:543.

  15.  PJMPS, 7:537, n. 1.

  16.  Ibid., 7:543, n. 1.

  17.  JM, Memorandum on Cabinet Meeting, June 7, 1814, PJMPS, 7:545.

  18.  William Jones to JM, June 8, 1814, PJMPS, 7:549, and n. 1, 7:549–50.

  19.  J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 388.

  20.  Ibid., 392.

  21.  Ibid., 393.

  22.  Ibid.

  23.  Ibid., 396.

  24.  JM to John Armstrong, August 13, 1814, PJMPS, 8:98–101.

  25.  Stagg, The War of 1812, 121.

  26. Though he had not raised the issue in the Cabinet, Navy Secretary Jones had ordered Chauncey to focus on gaining command of Lake Ontario from the Royal Navy. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 403–4.

  28.  Ibid., 401.

  29. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 188–89.

  Chapter 43

  1.  Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 189–91.

  2.  Ibid., 191–94, quotation at 194.

  3.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 572–74.

  4.  The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), 7:494, n. 3.

  5.  JM to John Armstrong, May 20, 1814, PJMPS, 7:502–04, at 503.

  6.  JM, Memorandum on Defense of the City of Washington, PJMPS, 8:2. The Monroe letter discussed hereafter is at n. 1.

  7.  J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 408.

  8.  This paragraph relies on Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 408–09.

  9.  JM to John Armstrong, July 2, 1814, PJMPS, 8:5.

  10.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 409.

  11.  C. Edward Skeen, John Armstrong, Jr.: A Biography (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981), 189.

  12.  Robert Wright to John Armstrong, July 14, 1814, PJMPS, 8:34–5 and note.

  13.  Resolution of the Aldermen and Common Council of the City of Washington, July 18, 1814, PJMPS, 8:45–46.

  14.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 413; JM to James Monroe, August 21, 1814, PJMPS, 8:128.

  15.  Headnote to James Scott, from Recollections of a Naval Life, in Hickey, The War of 1812, 490.

  16.  JM to James Monroe, 8:00 AM, August 21, 1814, PJMPS, 8:128; James Monroe to JM, August 21, 1814, PJMPS, 8:129; James Monroe to JM, 11:00 PM, August 21, 1814, PJMPS, 8:130–31; JM to James Monroe, 5:00 AM, August 22, 1814, PJMPS, 8:131; JM to James Monroe, 10:00 AM, August 22, 1814, PJMPS, 8:132; James Monroe to JM, August 22, 1814, PJMPS, 8:133. For Arnold and Jefferson, Dumas Malone, Jefferson the Virginian (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 336–40 (the Commonwealth’s public records at 340).

  17.  Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 416–17.

  18.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 205. Actually the rider, William Simmons, had recently been fired by Madison from his position as an accountant in the War Department. PJMPS, 8:137, n. 5.

  19.  The following relies on James Scott, from Recollections of a Naval Life, in Hickey, The War of 1812, 490–501. Barney’s account is excerpted in the first note at 501, and the account of Madison’s battlefield behavior is in the last note on that page.