20.  Donald R. Hickey says the rockets’ practical effect was scant, while their effect on morale was significant. Hickey, The War of 1812, 206.

  21.  PJMPS, 8:137, n. 6.

  23.  The following account draws on Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 1011–13.

  24. For these numbers, Tim McGrath, James Monroe: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2020), 338.

  Chapter 44

  1.  Tim McGrath, James Monroe: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2020), 338.

  2.  Elizabeth Dowling Taylor, A Slave in the White House: Paul Jennings and the Madisons (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 50–51.

  3.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 579.

  4.  Ibid., 578.

  5.  Henry Adams, History of the United States of American During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 1014–15.

  6.  JM, Memorandum of Conversations with John Armstrong, August 24, 1814, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), 8:134–36; JM, Memorandum of a Conversation with John Armstrong, August 29, 1814, PJMPS, 8:153–55; James Monroe’s Draft Memoranda on the Events of 24–28 August at Washington, post-28 August, PJMPS, 8:149–52. The editors of Madison’s papers say that despite their dates, Madison’s memoranda are likely to have been written later; he probably did not have time to write them in the middle of the events described above—as the memoranda themselves make clear. PJMPS, 8:136:1.

  7.  The following account is based on Memorandum of Conversations with John Armstrong, August 24, 1814, PJMPS, 8:134–36 and notes at 136–37.

  8.  Ibid., 8:136, n. 2.

  9.  JM to John Armstrong, August 13, 1814, PJMPS, 8:98–101.

  10.  This last point and the following discussion are based on Editorial Note, “The Madisons’ Travels in Virginia during the British Occupation of Washington, 24–26 August 1814,” PJMPS, 8:137–41, at 140–41.

  11.  JM, Memorandum of a Conversation with John Armstrong, August 29, 1814, PJMPS, 8:153–55.

  12.  Ibid., 8:156, n. 1.

  13.  John Armstrong to JM, September 4, 1814, PJMPS, 8:178.

  14.  Ibid., 8:178, n. 1.

  15.  Andrew Burstein and Nancy Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson (New York: Random House, 2010), 541.

  16.  From the Georgetown Federal Republican, October 4, 1814, PJMPS, 8:279.

  17.  C. Edward Skeen, John Armstrong, Jr.: A Biography (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1981), 201.

  18.  Presidential Proclamation, September 1, 1814, PJMPS, 8:166–68. Attorney General Richard Rush aided in the composition. Burstein and Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson, 542.

  19.  Burstein and Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson, 531.

  20.  Ketcham, James Madison, 589.

  21.  J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 428. Stagg notes that in their understandable though regrettable fixation on Chesapeake events in these weeks, Madison, Monroe, and Jones completely lost track of the Niagara front, where General George Izard’s strategic mistake opened Upstate New York and Vermont to invasion. For once, local militia proved adequate to the emergency. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 427.

  23.  I here rely on Marc Leepson, What So Proudly We Hailed: Francis Scott Key, A Life (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014), 61–65; Garry Wills, James Madison (New York: Times Books, 2002), 140; and Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 210–11.

  24.  Hickey, The War of 1812, 212.

  25.  Francis Scott Key, Original Manuscript of “Star Spangled Banner,” digital file from original negative (Library of Congress) www.loc.gov/resource/hec.04307.

  26. Leepson, What So Proudly We Hailed, 66–67.

  Chapter 45

  1.  Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 588–89.

  2.  Ibid., 590.

  3.  Richard Buel Jr., America on the Brink: How the Political Struggle Over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 210–11.

  4.  Ibid., 215–18.

  5.  Ketcham, James Madison, 592.

  6.  Wilson Cary Nicholas to JM, November 11, 1814, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 8:372–74.

  7.  Madison acted upon Nicholas’s advice regarding the Springfield Armory. Minutes of a Conversation Between James Monroe and Robert Swartwout, January 10, 1815, Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 7:271.

  8.  JM to Wilson Cary Nicholas, November 26, 1814, PJMPS, 8:401–02.

  9.  The following account relies primarily on J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 150–54 (Cochrane’s intentions for New Orleans at 150).

  10.  Ibid., 151 and 151, n. 10.

  11.  Henry Adams, The History of the United States During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 1171–72.

  12.  Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, January 9, 1815, The Papers of James Monroe, 7:268–70, at 269.

  13.  For Pakenham, Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 221–22.

  14.  Irving Brant, James Madison: Commander-in-Chief, 1812–1836 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), 358–59; James Monroe to JM, January 10, 1815, PJMPS, 8:501 and n. 1.

  15.  Buel, America on the Brink, 299.

  16.  Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict—Bicentennial Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 280–81.

  18.  Garry Wills, James Madison (New York: Times Books, 2002), 146.

  19. Hickey, The War of 1812, 281; see Robert Y. Hayne’s speeches in The Webster-Hayne Debate on the Nature of the Union: Selected Documents, ed. Herman Belz (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2000).

  Chapter 46

  1.  JM to Congress, February 18, 1815, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 8:599–601.

  2.  JM, Presidential Proclamation, January 16, 1815, PJMPS, 8:594–99. John Quincy Adams told his British opposite numbers at Ghent that he hoped they had just concluded “the last treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States.” Whether he expected that two centuries and more later the two countries would long have been the best of friends is doubtful. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 598. Madison’s partnership with Washington is the subject of Stuart Leibiger, Founding Friendship: George Washington, James Madison, and the Creation of the American Republic (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999).

  3.  Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), 456–57; Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (New York: Library of America, 1986), 1253.

  4.  Unfortunately, the dey of Algiers repudiated the treaty in April 1816. PJMPS, 10:xix.

  5.  JM, Annual Message to Congress, December 5, 1815, PJMPS, 10:66–72.

  6.  Ibid., 10:73, n. 14.

  7.  Ibid., 10:74, n. 15 mentions proposed protection of American hat manufacturers, cabinet- and wooden-ware makers, carriage makers, makers of leather goods, and paper manufacturers.

  8.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, James Madison and the Making of America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012), 49–131, 247–55.

  9.  Robert Allen Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), 197.

  10.  Dice Robins Anderson, William Branch Giles: A Study in the Politics of Virginia and the Nation from 1790 to 1830 (Menasha, WI: George Banta, 1914), 204–05.

  11.  Ketcham, James Madison, 605.

  12.  John C. Calhoun, Speech Introducing the Bank Bill, February 26, 1816, Papers of John C. Calhoun, ed. Robert L. Meriwether, et al. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1959–2003), 1:331–39.

  13.  See Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun: Nationalist, 1782–1828 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1944); Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun: Nullifier, 1829–1839 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1949); Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun: Sectionalist, 1840–1850 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951).

  14.  Andrew Burstein and Nancy Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson (New York: Random House, 2010), 558; JM to the Senate, January 30, 1815, PJMPS, 8:541–43.

  15.  Papers of John C. Calhoun, 1:346–47, n.; Preface, PJMPS, 10:xix-xxiv, at xxi.

  16.  Henry Clay, Remarks on Bill Increasing Compensation to Members of Congress, March 7, 1816, The Papers of Henry Clay, James F. Hopkins, et al., eds. (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1959–1991), 2:171.

  18.  John C. Calhoun, Speech on Compensation of Members, March 8, 1816, Papers of John C. Calhoun, 1:343–45 and n. Clay and Calhoun were not alone in making the family argument, nor did that argument pass uncontested. The Papers of Henry Clay, 2:172, n.

  19.  Irving H. Bartlett, John C. Calhoun: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 84–85.

  20. Ketcham, James Madison, 606.

  Chapter 47

  1.  Except where otherwise noted, the following account relies on F. Thornton Miller, Juries and Judges versus the Law: Virginia’s Provincial Legal Perspective, 1783–1828 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 74–86. (For a refutation of the claim in that book’s title, see Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Thomas Jefferson—Revolutionary: A Radical’s Struggle to Remake America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017), chapter 1.)

  2.  Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Virginia’s American Revolution: From Dominion to Republic, 1776–1840 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 129–30.

  3.  R. Kent Newmyer, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 106–07. The rest of this discussion will draw on 108–10.

  4.  Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816), Legal Information Institute (Cornell Law School) https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/14/304.

  5.  The following account relies on Andrew H. Browning, The Panic of 1819 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2019), chapter three, “Volcano Weather,” 75–102.

  Chapter 48

  1.  Tim McGrath, James Monroe: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2020), 375–76.

  2.  JM, Annual Message to Congress, December 3, 1816, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984–), 11:532–39.

  3.  For the biography’s authorship, see Robert Elder, Calhoun: American Heretic (New York: Basic Books, 2021), 401–03; the account of Calhoun and the Bonus Bill is at [John C. Calhoun & R. M. T. Hunter,] Life of John C. Calhoun … (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1843), 21.

  4.  JM to the House of Representatives, March 3, 1817, PJMPS, 11:701–03; Henry Clay to JM, March 3, 1817, PJMPS, 11:703–04.

  5.  Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist, ed. Jacob E. Cooke (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1961), 308–14.

  6.  PJMPS, 11:703, n. 1.

  7.  Norman K. Risjord, The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 173.

  8.  Ibid., 169–70; Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 670.

  Chapter 49

  1.  Tim McGrath, James Monroe (New York: Penguin, 2020), 377.

  2.  Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 19.

  3.  The following discussion is based on James Monroe to Andrew Jackson, December 14, 1816, The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 7:635–38.

  4.  Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 85.

  5.  Peterson, The Great Triumvirate, 86–87.

  6.  Salem (Massachusetts) Gazette, July 4, 1817, The Papers of James Monroe, 1:365; Peterson, The Great Triumvirate, 86.

  7.  The Papers of Henry Clay, James F. Hopkins, et al., eds. (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1959–1991), 2:320, n. Monroe’s leading biographer ascribed responsibility for the House’s decision to Clay, irked at not being made secretary of state. Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 367–68.

  8.  Ammon, James Monroe, 369.

  9.  Here Monroe had in mind Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. George Washington, for one, had done no such thing.

  10.  Later in the speech Monroe made clear his meaning that the “Government … protects every citizen in the full enjoyment of his rights,” though of course some of them were the province of the states, not the Federal Government. Thus Connecticut’s Standing Order would be abolished the following year, but Massachusetts’s religious establishment would endure until 1833—the fifth year of Andrew Jackson’s administration.

  11.  James Monroe to JM, December 22, 1817, The Papers of James Madison: Retirement Series, David B. Mattern, et al., eds. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009) (hereafter PJMRS), 1:178–79.

  12.  David L. Holmes, The Religion of the Founding Fathers (Ash Lawn-Highland: The Home of James Monroe and The Clements Library, The University of Michigan, 2003), 126–27.

  Chapter 50

  1.  The Writings of James Monroe, ed. Stanislaus Murray Hamilton (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1898–1903), 6:15, n.

  2.  Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971), 396–97.

  3.  Entries for November 20 and November 21, 1817, John Quincy Adams:Diaries, 1779–1821, ed. David Waldstreicher (New York: Library of America, 2017), 1:425–26.

  4.  Ammon, James Monroe, 647, n. 3.

  5.  Ibid., 398–99.

  6.  TJ to James Monroe, April 13, 1817, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series, ed. J. Jefferson Looney (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 11:257–58; TJ to James Monroe, April 15, 1817, PTJRS, 11:262.

  8.  Not only had the place belonged to Monroe, whose house still stands on the Grounds, but it had belonged to George Nicholas, who as a state legislator filed the motion to investigate the Jefferson administration’s performance during Benedict Arnold’s invasion and later was an eminent Virginia Ratification Convention Federalist. Though Nicholas’s motion struck Jefferson very hard, his brother Wilson Cary Nicholas had by 1817 contributed a son to the Jefferson kin network, and it was Governor Wilson Cary Nicholas who appointed Jefferson’s choices to the Board of Visitors. As a U.S. senator, Wilson Cary Nicholas would be an important ally of President James Monroe.

  9.  Editorial Note, The Founding of the University of Virginia: Central College, 1816–1819, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. Robert A. Rutland, et al. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984), 11:314–15. The best account of the general subject is in Jennings L. Wagoner Jr., Jefferson and Education (Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, Inc., 2004).

  10.  Ammon, James Monroe, 371.

  11.  James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson, April 23, 1817, The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers, ed. Daniel Preston, et al. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2012), 1:13–14, at 14.

  12.  Joseph G. Swift Memoirs, March 25, 1817, April 4, 1817, and April 9, 1817, The Papers of James Monroe, 1:9.

  13.  Nicholas Biddle to James Monroe, April 10, 1817, The Papers of James Monroe, 1:10–11.