CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

  JANUARY 1966 TO JANUARY 1970

  1966

  15 January: Military coup overthrows First Republic. Prime Minister, finance minister, two regional premiers and senior army officers assassinated.

  16 January: Acting President hands over power to Major-General Ironsi. Supreme Military Council established.

  18 January: Military Governors appointed: Maj. Hassan Katsina, North, Lt-Col. Fajuyi, West, Lt-Col. Ojukwu, East, Lt-Col. Ejoor, Mid-West. Lt-Col. Gowon appointed army chief of staff.

  24 May: Ironsi abolishes the regions and establishes a unified civil service under a unitary government, set up by decree 34.

  28–31 May: Riots in Northern Region.

  29 July: Northern troops mutiny; Ironsi and Fajuyi murdered.

  1 August: Gowon emerges as national leader.

  12 September: Ad hoc constitutional conference meets in Lagos.

  1 October: Several days of intense rioting in the North, leading to a breakdown of law and order, and the deaths of Igbos living in the North, and some killing in the East.

  16 November: Constitutional conference adjourned indefinitely.

  1967

  4–5 January: Military Governors and Gowon meet at Aburi, Ghana.

  25 February: Ojukwu threatens unilateral action before 31 March.

  30 March: Eastern Region directs that all revenue collected in the region on behalf of the Federal Government should be paid to Eastern Region.

  29 April: The Federal Military Government announces suspension of all postal and money order transactions between the Eastern Region and the rest of the Federation.

  6 May: Chief Awolowo and others visit Enugu to find a solution to the crisis.

  27 May: Gowon declares a state of emergency. He abolishes the regions and creates 12 states.

  28 May: Twelve governors appointed for the new states.

  30 May: Ojukwu declares the former Eastern Region a sovereign state to be known as the Republic of Biafra.

  6 July: Fighting breaks out between Federal and Biafran forces on the borders of Benue Plateau State and East Central State.

  15 July: Nsukka captured by Federal forces.

  25 July: Federal forces capture Bonny.

  9 August: Biafran forces invade Mid-West Region.

  11 August: Russian Mig-17s arrive in Kano. Biafran aircraft bomb Lagos.

  17 August: Biafran leader, Lt-Col. Ojukwu, names Major Okonkwo Military Administrator of Mid-West region.

  23 August: Biafran troops reach Ore, 100 miles from Lagos.

  2 September: Gowon announces ‘total war’.

  21 September: Benin recaptured by Federal forces.

  23 September: Lt-Col. Banjo and colleagues found guilty of treason and executed by Biafran government.

  4 October: Enugu falls to Federal forces.

  19 October: Calabar captured by Federal troops.

  22 November: The Organisation for African Unity (OAU) mission, headed by Emperor Haile Selassie arrives in Lagos to open peace negotiations.

  1968

  3 January: Federal government introduces a new currency.

  29 January: Biafra issues its own currency.

  11 February: Commonwealth Secretary General Arnold Smith visits Lagos, to explore ways of ending the conflict.

  30 February: Azikiwe’s press conference in Paris.

  25 March: Destruction of Federal force at Abagana.

  13 April: Tanzania recognises Biafra.

  15 April: Federal Government chooses International Committee of the Red Cross to co-ordinate all relief aid from outside Nigeria.

  8 May: Gabon recognises Biafra.

  15 May: Ivory Coast recognises Biafra.

  20 May: Zambia recognises Biafra.

  23–31 May: Kampala peace talks.

  27 May: Czechoslovakia announces arms embargo on Federal government.

  5 June: Gowon announces that there will be no advance on Igbo heartland until all peace talks fail.

  12 June: France announces arms supply embargo to Federal government. Michael Leapman’s report, on Biafra’s starving children, appears in the Sun newspaper.

  5 July: Belgium announces arms supply embargo on Federal Government.

  6 July: Lord Hunt flies to Nigeria to assess relief needs.

  31 July: French cabinet supports Biafran claim to self-determination.

  5–9 August: Addis Ababa peace talks, attended by Ojukwu.

  28 August: Federal Government nominates an International Observer Team to investigate charges of genocide.

  31 August: Biafran troops reinforced by French army supplies.

  10 September: Federal forces capture Aba.

  15 September: Biafra retakes Oguta.

  16 September: Owerri falls to Federal troops.

  2 October: International Observer Team reports no evidence of genocide.

  30 October: Count Von Rosen appointed to oversee arms airlift into Biafra.

  11 December: British government gives £700,000 to ICRC for relief in Nigeria.

  13 December: British members of Parliament, Lord Brockway and James Griffiths, make private visit to Biafra and Lagos.

  15 December: Rioting in Ibadan, Abeokuta and Ishara.

  17 December: Ojukwu rejects daylight flights.

  1969

  10 February: Azikiwe publicizes 14-point peace plan.

  27–31 March: British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, visits Nigeria.

  9 May: Foreign oil men captured by Biafran troops at Kwale.

  12 May: Federal army replaces all three divisional commanders.

  22 May: Biafran air attacks by Swedish MF1–9B minitrainer aircraft led by Count Von Rosen, on Port Harcourt, Benin and oil fields in the Rivers and Mid-West states.

  1 June: Ojukwu issues the Ahiara Declaration.

  23 June: Federal forces mount another major offensive.

  28 August: Azikiwe declares support for a united Nigeria at a London press conference.

  6–10 September: Sixth OAU summit held in Kampala.

  14 September: Ojukwu rejects ICRC’s Lagos daylight relief agreement.

  22 September: More riots in Western state.

  1 November: Ojukwu issues peace proposals.

  9 December: Lord Carrington visits Biafra and Nigeria.

  15–18 December: Efforts to launch peace talks in Addis Ababa.

  27 December: Federal forces link up at Umuahia, cutting off more than 500 square miles of Biafran enclave.

  1970

  9 January: Owerri falls to Federal troops.

  10 January: Ojukwu holds final cabinet meeting and leaves Biafra.

  12 January: Effiong announces Biafra’s surrender.

  13 January: Gowon accepts Biafran surrender. British government makes £5 million available for relief to Nigeria.

  14 January: Biafran mission arrives in Lagos.

  15 January: ‘The dawn of national reconciliation’; Gowon’s victory message to the nation.

  PEOPLE FEATURED

  IN THE BOOK

  Achuzia, Joseph. Igbo. Unorthodox but successful military commander in the Biafran Army. He was not a regular soldier, but had undergone national service in the British Army.

  Adekunle, Benjamin, Major . Yoruba/Bachama. Came to prominence during the civil war as a divisional commander for the Federation. Enjoyed military success and was a popular hero with the Federal people. Was, arguably, removed from his command because of his popularity; seen as a threat to the Federal Authority’s position.

  Aguiyi-Ironsi, Johnson, Maj. Gen . Igbo. First indigenous general officer commanding of the Nigerian Army, and military ruler of Nigeria following the first coup.

  Akintola, Samuel . Yoruba. Awolowo’s deputy in the Action Group and Prime Minister of the Western Region.

  Akpan, Ntieyong . Ibibio. Secretary to the Biafran government.

  Azikiwe, Nnamdi . Igbo. Formed the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC), with Herbert Macaulay; first indigenous governor-general and first president.

  Anowai, Alfred Sqd-Ldr . Igbo. Nigerian-trained airforce officer, fought for Biafra.

  Awolowo, Obafemi, Chief. Yoruba. Leader of the Yoruba-based Action Group political party.

  Balewa, Sir Abubkar Tafawa . Hausa-Fulani. Federal Prime Minister.

  Banjo, Victor, Lt-Col . Yoruba. Sandhurst-trained Nigerian army officer. Led the Mid-West invasion by Biafra. Executed by Ojukwu.

  Boro, Isaac . Ijaw. Student political activist, aimed to form a separate Delta Region state. Fought for Federal Government during the war.

  Brierly, Tim . Oxfam director for Nigeria at the start of the civil war.

  Burrows, Julia . Daughter of managing director of Costain, 1955–1964.

  Crowther, Samuel . Yoruba. First indigenous Christian bishop.

  Cumming-Bruce, Sir Francis . High Commissioner to Nigeria before Hunt; later 8th Baron Thurlow.

  Danjuma, Theophilius, Captain . Hausa-Fulani. Thought to be responsible for killing Ironsi during the second coup, but denied culpability.

  Effiong, Philip, Lt-Col . Ibibio. Chief of staff of the Biafran army.

  Eneje, Dr James . Igbo. Member of Biafran Organisation of Freedom Fighters (BOFF).

  Ejoor, David Lt-Col . Urhoho. Sandhurst-trained regular officer in the Nigerian Army, appointed Military Governor of the Mid-West Region by Major General Ironsi, when he came to power following the first coup in January 1966.

  Fajuyi, Adekunle, Lt-Col . Yoruba. Appointed Western Military Governor by Major-General Ironsi, and killed in the second coup.

  Foccart, Jacques . Gen. de Gaulle’s special advisor on African affairs.

  Forsyth, Frederick . Writer and Biafran supporter during the civil war.

  Gbulie, Benjamin, Captain . Igbo. Sandhurst-trained officer of the Nigerian Army and one of the officers involved in the first coup. An Igbo who fought for Biafra.

  Goldie, Sir George . Created the United Africa Company during Nigeria’s early colonial development.

  Gowon, Yakubu, Lt-Col. Angas. Military leader of Nigeria after the second coup.

  Haruna, Ibrahim, Major . Hausa-Fulani. Commanding officer of the Federal forces 2nd Division.

  Hunt, Sir David . British High Commissioner during the war.

  Katsina, Hassan, Major . Hausa-Fulani. Sandhurst-trained Nigerian army officer and appointed by Major-General Ironsi as Military Governor of the Northern Region after the first coup.

  Kalu, Ogbugo, Major . Igbo. Attended Staff College, Camberley, in Nigerian Army, then fought for Biafra; trained militia in Port Harcourt before the start of the civil war.

  Leapman, Michael . Reporter for the Sun newspaper.

  Lugard, Lord Frederick . First governor-general of Nigeria.

  Macaulay, Herbert . Early Nigerian nationalist, formed the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP).

  MacDonald, Malcolm . Son of British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and Cumming-Bruce’s roving unofficial ambassador in Nigeria, following the second coup.

  Madiebo, Alexander, Lt-Col. Igbo. Sandhurst-trained Nigerian army officer, commander of the Biafran army.

  Mbanefo, Sir Louis . Igbo. Biafra’s chief justice.

  Mojekwu, Christopher . Igbo. Cousin and close advisor of Ojukwu.

  Murtala Mohammed, Major . Hausa-Fulani. Muslim Northerner, who came to prominence after the second coup. Led a division for the Federal Authorities during the civil war. Was a contender for Gowon’s position following the second coup, and ousted him from power in 1976.

  Njoku, Hilary, Lt-Col . Igbo. Nigerian army officer and first commander of the Biafran army.

  Nzeogwu, Chukwume, Major . Igbo. Sandhurst-trained Nigerian army officer and one of the leaders of the first coup.

  Obasanjo, Olusegun, Major . Yoruba. Assumed command of 3rd division of the Federal Nigerian army from Adekunle.

  Ogundipe, Babafemi, Brigadier . Yoruba. Most senior army officer still alive following the second coup. Became Nigeria’s High Commissioner in Britain.

  Ojukwu, Emeka, Lt-Col. Igbo. Son of Sir Louis Ojukwu, Military Governor of the Eastern Region, appointed by General Ironsi following the first coup, and leader of the seceded state of Biafra.

  Okafor, Ben . Igbo. Playwright and member of BOFF.

  Okpara, Michael . Igbo. Former Eastern Region Premier and advisor to Ojukwu.

  Von Rosen, Count Carl Gustav . Swedish volunteer and supplier of Minicon aircraft for Biafra.

  Sardauna of Sokoto (Sir Ahmadu Bello) . Hausa-Fulani. Political leader of the Northern Region, and Nigeria’s most powerful politician.

  Scott, Robert, Colonel . British High Commission military attaché.

  Soyinka, Wole . Yoruba. Writer, political activist, interned by Gowon during the civil war.

  Steiner, Rolf . Soldier of fortune, fought for Biafra.

  Ujam, Samuel, Igbo. Battalion commander in the Biafran army.

  Williams , Taffy. South African mercenary who fought for Biafra.

  APPENDIX 1

  Appendix 1: Documents showing Nigerian arms imports from Britain 1967–1969. From Cronje, S., The World and Nigeria. (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972.)

  APPENDIX 2

  Appendix 2: Document confirming the potential doubling of Nigerian oil revenue by 1970. The Nigerian authorities were not informed. FCO 221/45, Public Records Office, Kew.

  APPENDIX 3

  Appendix 3: Documents confirming the proposed sale of Biafran natural resources to Rothschild Bank, Paris. FCO38/244, Public Records Office, Kew.

  NOTES

  Chapter 1 Introduction

  Chapter 2 Historical Background

  Chapter 3 The Path to War and Its Beginning

  Chapter 4 The Second Part of the War: From Mid-1968 to January 1970

  Chapter 5 Biafra’s Longevity

  342.  FCO Doc.38/267, National Archives, 1 September 1967.

  343.  FCO Doc. 38/268, 29 September 1967. The Nigerian High Commissioner, Brigadier Ogundipe, bought 10,000 rifles from Spain and 15,000 rifles from Germany as well as a large quantity of ammunition. Aircraft carrying these supplies to Nigeria were subject to clearance by the British authorities and his supply was contrary to the British Government.

  344.  Appendix 2: Arms supply. There were times during the war when Britain was supplying 90% of all the Federal Government’s arms.

  345.   The Times , 6 March 1969.

  346.   Oxfam News , April 1968.

  347.  Michael Leapman: interview, 10 June 2007.

  348.  Questionnaire carried out by the author at random with members of the British public, 2008.

  349.  FCO Doc. 38/211, National Archives. Part of a telegram sent by Wilson to Gowon on 19 July 1967.

  350.  FCO Doc. 38/211, National Archives. Part of a telegram sent by Wilson to Gowon on 19 July 1967.

  351.  Brierly: interview, 21 February 2008.

  352.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008; Gbulie: interview, 12 October 2007.

  353.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008.

  354.  Brierly: interview, 21 February 2008; Josephine Achuzia: interview, 25 January 2007.

  355.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 April 2008.

  356.  Brierly: interview, 25 April 2008.

  357.  Smith, M., A Cause For Our Time, Oxfam the First Fifty Years (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 122.

  358.  Gowon: interview, 12 October 2007.

  359.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008.

  360.   World Medicine , 12 November 1968: part of an article by Dr Noel Moynihan, working in Nigeria for the Save the Children Fund.

  361.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008.

  362.  Sqd-Ldr Alfred Anowai: interview, 14 September 2007.

  363.  Brierly: interview, 21 February 2008.

  364.  Fred Cuny (a foreign pilot who flew transport aircraft for different organi-sations): interview. BBC Timewatch , 15 June 2000.

  365.   New York Herald Tribune , 17 August 1968.

  366.   New York Herald Tribune , 17 August 1968.

  367.   The Times, 28 May 1969.

  368.   The Times, 28 May 1969.

  369.  De St Jorre (1972), p. 339.

  370.  Forsyth: interview, 12 April 2007. Forsyth and Ojukwu remain friends to this day. Forsyth was instrumental in looking after and educating Ojukwu’s children, during and after the war, in England. During his time in Biafra he was to write a successful account of the war, which even Ojukwu felt was too biased in Biafra’s favour (Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008), and this account was to lead him to write his first successful novel, The Dogs of War.

  371.   Daily Telegraph, 17 July 1968, interview with Chinua Achebe.

  372.   Daily Telegraph, 17 July 1968, interview with Dr Garrick Leton, the principal of the Advanced Training College in Owerri.

  373.   Guardian, 13 June 1968.

  374.   The Times , 6 March 1968.

  375.  Gowon: interview, 12 October 2007.

  376.  FCO Doc. 38/270, 7 March 1968, National Archives.

  377.  FCO Doc. 38/268, 20 November 1968, National Archives.

  378.  Ojukwu: interview, 25 March 2008. He admitted that this figure of 50,000 had been a useful exaggeration to help promote Biafra’s cause, but that it had grown from the original reports at the time which suggested a figure of nearer 5,000.

  379.   Daily Telegraph , 12 December 1968.

  380.  Major-Gen. H.T. Alexander, British representative on the International Observer Team in Nigeria, January 1970; Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King’s College London.

  381.  Gowon: interview, 12 October 2007.

  382.   The Sun , 6 September 1968; The Times, Daily Telegraph, and Daily Express also recorded the incident.

  383.   Daily Sketch , 20 August 1968.

  384.   Daily Telegraph , 6 September 1968. ITN also filmed the execution of the officer responsible. According to Michael Leapman, the execution was delayed to allow Michael Nicholson and his team from ITN to get their equipment in place to record the detail. Michael Leapman: interview.